西藏民主改革50年

Fifty Years of Democratic Reform in Tibet

中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室

Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China

二○○九年三月二日·北京

March 2, 2009, Beijing

目   录

Contents

前   言

Foreword

一、旧西藏政教合一的封建农奴制社会

I. Old Tibet -- A Society of Feudal Serfdom under Theocracy

二、波澜壮阔的西藏民主改革

II. Momentous Democratic Reform in Tibet

三、半个世纪西藏的历史性巨变

III. Tremendous Historic Changes over the Past Half-century

结束语

Conclusion

前　　言

Foreword

西藏自古以来就是中国不可分割的一部分。和平解放西藏、驱逐帝国主义侵略势力出西藏，实行民主改革、废除西藏政教合一的封建农奴制度，是近代以来中国人民反帝反封建的民族民主革命的重要组成部分，也是中华人民共和国成立后中国政府面临的重大历史任务。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Tibet has been an inseparable part of China since ancient times. The peaceful liberation of Tibet, the driving out of the imperialist aggressor forces from Tibet, the democratic reform and abolition of theocratic feudal serfdom in Tibet were significant parts of the Chinese people's national democratic revolution against imperialism and feudalism in modern history, as well as major historical tasks facing the Chinese government after the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949.

    1959年之前的西藏是一个比欧洲中世纪还要黑暗、落后的政教合一的封建农奴制社会。十四世达赖喇嘛作为藏传佛教格鲁派首领，也是西藏地方政府首脑，集政教大权于一身，是西藏封建农奴主阶级的总代表。占西藏总人口不足5%的农奴主占有着西藏绝大部分生产资料，垄断着西藏的物质精神财富，而占人口95%以上的农奴和奴隶没有生产资料和人身自由，遭受着极其残酷的压迫和剥削，挣扎在极端贫困的悲惨境地中，根本谈不上做人的权利。长期政教合一的封建农奴制统治窒息了西藏社会的生机和活力，使西藏社会日益走向没落和衰败。

Prior to 1959, Tibet had long been a society of feudal serfdom under theocratic rule, a society which was even darker than medieval society in Europe. The 14th Dalai Lama, as a leader of the Gelug Sect of Tibetan Buddhism and also head of the Tibetan local government, monopolized both political and religious power, and was the chief representative of the feudal serf owners, who, accounting for less than five percent of the total population of Tibet, possessed the overwhelming part of the means of production, and monopolized the material and cultural resources of Tibet. The serfs and slaves, making up over 95 percent of the total population, suffered destitution, cruel oppression and exploitation, and possessed no means of production or personal freedom whatsoever, not to mention other basic human rights. The long centuries of theocratic rule and feudal serfdom stifled the vitality of Tibetan society, and brought about its decline and decay.

    1951年，中央人民政府与西藏地方政府签订《关于和平解放西藏办法的协议》（简称《十七条协议》），西藏摆脱了帝国主义侵略势力的羁绊，实现和平解放，为西藏与全国一起实现共同进步与发展创造了基本前提。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In 1951, the Agreement of the Central People's Government and the Local Government of Tibet on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet (hereinafter the "17-Article Agreement") was signed. The Agreement enabled Tibet to repel the imperialist forces and realize peaceful liberation, and provided basic conditions for Tibet to join the other parts of the country in the drive for common progress and development.

    《十七条协议》肯定了改革西藏社会制度的必要性，强调“西藏地方政府应自动进行改革”，但是，考虑到西藏的特殊情况，中央人民政府对改革采取了十分慎重的态度，以极大的耐心、宽容和诚意，劝说、等待西藏地方上层统治集团主动进行改革。但是，在帝国主义势力策动支持下，西藏上层统治集团的一些人面对人民日益高涨的民主改革要求，根本反对改革，顽固坚持“长期不改，永远不改”，企图永远保持政教合一的封建农奴制度，于1959年3月10日公开撕毁《十七条协议》，悍然发动了全面武装叛乱。在这种情况下，为维护国家的统一和西藏人民的根本利益，中央人民政府与西藏人民一道坚决平息了武装叛乱。与此同时，在西藏掀起了一场轰轰烈烈的群众性民主改革运动，废除了政教合一的封建农奴制度，解放了百万农奴和奴隶，开创了西藏人民当家作主的新时代。这是西藏发展史上最广泛、最深刻、最伟大的社会变革，是西藏社会发展和人权进步的划时代的重大历史事件，也是人类文明发展史和世界人权史上具有重大意义的巨大进步。

The "17-Article Agreement" acknowledged the necessity of reforming the social system of Tibet, and stressed that "the local government of Tibet should carry out reform voluntarily." However, in consideration of the special circumstances of Tibet, the Central People's Government adopted a circumspect attitude toward the reform. With great patience, tolerance and sincerity, it made efforts to persuade and waited for the local upper ruling strata of Tibet to carry out reform voluntarily. Instigated and supported by imperialist forces, however, some people in the upper ruling strata, despite the ever-growing demand of the people for democratic reform, were totally opposed to reform and proclaimed their determination never to carry it out. In an attempt to perpetuate feudal serfdom under theocracy, these people publicly abandoned the "17-Article Agreement" and brazenly staged an all-out armed rebellion on March 10, 1959. In order to safeguard the unity of the nation and the basic interests of the Tibetan people, the Central People's Government and the Tibetan people took decisive measures to quell the rebellion. Meanwhile, a vigorous democratic reform were carried out on a massive scale in Tibet to overthrow Tibet's feudal serfdom system under theocracy and liberate about one million serfs and slaves, ushering in a new era with the people becoming their own masters. The democratic reform was the most extensive, deepest and greatest social reform in the history of Tibet, and signified an epoch-making event in Tibet's history of social development and the progress of its human rights, as well as a significant advance in the history of human civilization and the world's human rights development.

半个世纪以来，获得解放的西藏各族人民在中央人民政府的关心和全国人民的支援下，以主人翁的姿态和空前的热情投身建设新社会、创造新生活的伟大进程，创造了一个又一个西藏历史上亘古未有的奇迹。西藏的社会制度实现了跨越式发展，现代化建设日新月异、突飞猛进，社会面貌发生了翻天覆地的历史性变化，人权事业取得了举世瞩目的重大进展。

Over the past half century, thanks to the care of the Central People's Government and aid from across the nation, the liberated people of all ethnic groups in Tibet have, in the capacity of masters of the nation, enthusiastically participated in the grand course of constructing a new society and creating their new lives, and worked miracles that had never happened in the Tibetan history. The social system of Tibet has developed by leaps and bounds; its modernization has advanced rapidly; Tibetan society has undergone earth-shaking historic changes; and remarkable progress has been made in the cause of human rights, which has attracted worldwide attention.

    今年是西藏实行民主改革50周年。回顾西藏实行民主改革这一波澜壮阔的历史进程和50年来西藏广泛深刻的历史巨变，揭示西藏社会发展的规律，用事实揭穿达赖集团在“西藏问题”上散布的各种谎言和十四世达赖喇嘛的本来面目，有助于澄清历史是非，让世人更好地了解一个真实的西藏、发展变化的西藏。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The year 2009 marks the 50th anniversary of the democratic reform in Tibet. It is conducive to telling the right from wrong in history and helps the world better understand a real Tibet in progress for us to review the overwhelming democratic reform and the profound historical changes that have taken place in Tibet over the past 50 years, to shed light on the laws governing the social development of Tibet, and expose through facts the various lies and rumors spread by the 14th Dalai Lama and his hard-core supporters over the so-called "Tibet issue," as well as the true colors of the 14th Dalai Lama himself.

一、旧西藏政教合一的封建农奴制社会

I. Old Tibet -- A Society of Feudal Serfdom under Theocracy

    1959年民主改革前，西藏处于政教合一的封建农奴制统治之下，由官家、贵族和寺院上层僧侣三大领主组成的农奴主阶级对广大农奴和奴隶进行极其残酷的政治压迫和经济剥削，西藏人民灾难深重、生存维艰，西藏社会陷入极度贫穷落后和封闭萎缩的状态。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Before the democratic reform in 1959, Tibet had been a society of feudal serfdom under theocracy, a society characterized by a combination of political and religious powers, and ruthless political oppression and economic exploitation of serfs and slaves by the serf-owner class, including three major estate-holders -- local administrative officials, aristocrats and upper-ranking lamas in the monasteries. For centuries, the Tibetan people had been living in dire misery and suffering from the harshness of life, and their society had sunk into a grave state of poverty, backwardness, isolation and decline, verging on total collapse.

    ——政教合一的中世纪式社会形态。关于旧西藏的社会形态，1904年到过拉萨的英国随军记者埃德蒙·坎德勒在《拉萨真面目》中有详细的记载。他说，当时的西藏，“人民还停留在中世纪的年代，不仅仅是在他们的政体、宗教方面，在他们的严厉惩罚、巫术、灵童转世以及要经受烈火与沸油的折磨方面是如此，而且在他们日常生活的所有方面也都不例外”。（注1）旧西藏社会制度的最显著特征是政教合一，宗教上层和寺庙势力庞大，既是西藏的主要政治统治者，也是最大的农奴主之一，拥有众多的政治、经济特权，支配着人们的物质和精神生活。埃德蒙·坎德勒在《拉萨真面目》中说，“这个地方实行的是封建制度。喇嘛是太上皇，农民是他们的奴隶”。“强大的僧侣势力掌管一切。即使是佛陀本人，没有僧侣也无能为力”。（注2）据统计，民主改革前，西藏共有寺庙2676座，僧众114925人，其中大小活佛等上层僧侣约500人，掌握经济实权的僧侣共4000余人。当时西藏大约有四分之一的男子出家为僧。哲蚌、色拉、甘丹三大寺僧人人数一度超过1.6万人，共占有庄园321个、土地14.7万多克（1克相当于1亩）、牧场450个、牲畜11万头，占有农牧奴6万多人。宗教势力在政教合一制度下得到恶性膨胀，消耗了西藏大量人力资源和绝大部分物质财富，禁锢着人们的思想，成为妨碍生产力发展的沉重枷锁。20世纪20年代曾作为英国商务代表留驻拉萨多年的查尔斯·贝尔在《十三世达赖喇嘛传》中说，达赖喇嘛之所以能随心所欲地进行赏罚，就在于他的政教合一地位，他既掌握着农奴今生的生杀予夺大权，又掌握着他们“来世”的命运，并以此作要挟。（注3）美国藏学家梅·戈尔斯坦深刻地指出，“在西藏，社会和政府奠基于宗教目标与行为凌驾一切的价值系统之上”。“宗教的权力和特权及大寺院在阻挠进步方面扮演了主要角色”。还说，宗教和寺院集团是“西藏社会进步的沉重桎梏”，“正是由于全民族信教和宗教首领执掌政教大权这一因素，导致西藏丧失了适应不断变化的环境和形势的能力”。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

-- Medieval theocratic society. British military journalist Edmund Candler, who visited Lhasa in 1904, recorded the details of the old Tibetan society in his book "The Unveiling of Lhasa": "...at present, the people are medieval, not only in their system of government and their religion, their inquisition, their witchcraft, their incarnations, their ordeals by fire and boiling oil, but in every aspect of their daily life." (The Unveiling of Lhasa, Edmund Candler. London: Pentagon, 2007) The most distinctive feature of the social system of old Tibet was theocracy, a system which ensured that the upper religious strata and the monasteries were together the political power holders as well as the biggest serf owners, possessing all kinds of political and economic privileges, and manipulating the material and cultural lives of the Tibetan people at their own advantage. Candler wrote in the book: "The country is governed on the feudal system. The monks are the overlords, the peasantry their serfs." "Powerful lamas controlled everything in Tibet, where even the Buddha himself couldn't do anything without the support of the lamas," he added. (The Unveiling of Lhasa, Edmund Candler. London: Pentagon, 2007) Statistics show that before the democratic reform in 1959, Tibet had 2,676 monasteries and 114,925 monks, including 500 senior and junior Living Buddhas and other upper-ranking lamas, and over 4,000 lamas holding substantial economic resources. About one quarter of Tibetan men were monks. The three major monasteries -- Drepung, Sera and Ganden -- housed a total of more than 16,000 monks, and possessed 321 manors, 147,000 mu (15 mu equal one hectare, it is locally called ke in Tibet -- ed.) of land, 450 pastures, 110,000 head of livestock, and over 60,000 serfs. The vicious expansion of religious power under theocracy depleted massive human resources and most material resources, shackled people's thinking and impeded the development of productivity. Charles Bell, who lived in Lhasa as a British trade representative in the 1920s, described in his book "Portrait of A Dalai Lama: The Life and Times of the Great Thirteenth" that the theocratic position of the Dalai Lama enabled him to administer rewards and punishments as he wished, because he held absolute power over both this life and the next of the serfs, and coerced them with such power. (Portrait of A Dalai Lama: The Life and Times of the Great Thirteenth, Charles Bell, London: Collins, 1946) American Tibetologist Melvyn C. Goldstein incisively pointed out that Tibetan society and government were built upon a value system dominated by religious goals and behavior. Religious power and privileges, and the leading monasteries "played a major role in thwarting progress" in Tibet. Religion and the monasteries "were heavy fetters upon Tibet's social progress". "This commitment... to the universality of religion as the core metaphor of Tibetan national identity will be seen... to be a major factor underlying Tibet's inability to adapt to changing circumstances." (A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State, Melvyn C. Goldstein. California: University of California, 1991)

    ——三大领主占有绝大部分生产资料。旧西藏的全部耕地、牧场、森林、山川、河流、河滩以及大部分牲畜，都由约占人口5%的官家、贵族、寺庙上层僧侣三大领主及其代理人占有。占西藏人口90%左右的“差巴”（领种份地，向农奴主支差役的人）、“堆穷”（意为冒烟的小户）是农奴，他们没有生产资料和人身自由，靠耕种份地维持生计。另有约5%的“朗生”是世代奴隶，被当成“会说话的工具”。据17世纪清朝初年统计，当时西藏约有耕地300万克，其中30.9%为封建地方政府占有，29.6%为贵族占有，39.5%为寺院和上层僧侣占有。此后，三大领主垄断生产资料的状况基本没有改变。据统计，民主改革前，十四世达赖喇嘛家族在西藏占有27座庄园、30个牧场，拥有农牧奴6000多人。每年在农奴身上榨取的青稞33000多克（1克相当于14公斤），酥油2500多克，藏银200多万两，牛羊300头，氆氇175卷。1959年，十四世达赖喇嘛本人手上有黄金16万两，白银9500万两，珠宝玉器2万多件，有各种绸缎、珍贵裘皮衣服1万多件，其中价值数万元的镶有珍珠宝石的斗篷100多件。

-- Means of production mostly monopolized by the three major estate-holders. The three major estate-holders, that is, local administrative officials, aristocrats and upper-ranking lamas in the monasteries, and their agents, accounted for less than five percent of Tibet's population, but owned all of Tibet's farmland, pastures, forests, mountains, rivers and beaches, as well as most livestock. About 90 percent of old Tibet's population was made up of serfs, called "tralpa" in Tibetan (namely, people who tilled plots of land assigned to them and had to provide corvee labor for the serf owners) and "duiqoin" (small households with chimneys emitting smoke). They had no means of production or per-sonal freedom, and the survival of each of them depended on tilling plots for the estate-holders. In addition, "nangzan," who comprised five percent of the population, were hereditary slaves, known as "speaking tools." Statistics released in the early years of the Qing Dynasty in the 17th century indicate that Tibet then had more than three million mu of farmland, of which 30.9 percent was owned by the local feudal government, 29.6 percent by aristocrats, and 39.5 percent by monasteries and upper-ranking lamas. The three major estate-holders' monopoly of the means of production remained unchanged until the democratic reform in 1959.Before 1959, the family of the 14th Dalai Lama possessed 27 manors,30 pastures and over 6,000 serfs, and annually squeezed about 33,000 ke (one ke equals 14 kilograms -- ed.) of qingke (highland barley), 2,500 ke of butter, two million liang (15 liang of silver equal one silver dollar of the time) of Tibetan silver, 300 head of cattle, and 175 rolls of pulu (woolen fabric made in Tibet) out of its serfs. In 1959, the Dalai Lama alone owned 160,000 liang of gold, 95 million liang of silver, over 20,000 pieces of jewelry and jadeware, and more than 10,000 pieces of silk and satin fabric and rare fur clothing, including over 100 robes inlaid with pearls and gems, each worth tens of thousands of yuan.

    ——三大领主占有农奴的人身。旧西藏地方政府规定，农奴只能固定在所属领主的庄园土地上，不得擅自离开，绝对禁止逃亡。农奴世世代代依附领主，被束缚在庄园的土地上。凡是人力和畜力能种地的，一律得种差地，并支乌拉差役。农奴一旦丧失劳动能力，就被收回牲畜、农具、差地，沦落为奴隶。农奴主占有农奴的人身，把农奴当作自己的私有财产支配，可随意用于赌博、买卖、转让、赠送、抵债和交换。1943年，大贵族车门·罗布旺杰把100名农奴卖给止贡地区噶珠康萨的僧官洛桑楚成，每个农奴的价钱是60两藏银（15两藏银约合一块银元），另外，他还把400名农奴送给功德林寺，抵3000品藏银（1品约合50两藏银）债。农奴主掌握着农奴的生、死、婚、嫁大权。正如当时的民谚所说：“生命虽由父母所生，身体却为官家占有。纵有生命和身体，却没有做主的权利。”农奴的婚姻必须取得领主的同意，不同领主的农奴婚嫁要缴纳“赎身费”。农奴生小孩要到领主那里缴纳出生税，登记入册，农奴的子女一出生就注定了终身为农奴的命运。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

-- Serfs owned by the three major estate-holders. The local government of old Tibet prescribed that serfs must stay on the land within the manors of their owners, and were not allowed to leave without permission, and were strictly prohibited from fleeing the manors. They were serfs from generation to generation, confined to the land of their owners. All serfs and their livestock with labor ability had to till the plots of land assigned to them and provide corvee labor. Once the serfs lost their ability to labor, they were deprived of livestock, farm tools and land, and degraded to the status of slaves. The serf-owners literally possessed their serfs as private properties, they could trade and transfer them, present them as gifts, make them gambling stakes or mortgages for debt and exchange them. According to historical records, in 1943 the aristocrat Trimon Norbu Wan-gyal sold 100 serfs to a monk official at Kadron Gangsa, in the Drigung area, each serf for 60 liang of silver. He also sent 400 serfs to the Kunde Ling Monastery as a payment for a debt of 3,000 pin of silver (one pin equals 50 liang of silver). The serf-owners had a firm grip on the birth, death and marriage of serfs. A Tibetan ballad of the time goes, "Our lives were given to us by our parents, but our bodies are owned by our lords. We are not masters of our own lives or bodies, or of our own destiny." All serfs had to ask their owners for permission to marry, and male and female serfs not belonging to the same owner had to pay "redemption fees" before they could marry. After marriage, serfs were also taxed for their newborn children. Children of serfs were registered the moment they were born, sealing their life-long fate as serfs.

    ——森严的等级制度。旧西藏通行了几百年的《十三法典》和《十六法典》，将人分成三等九级，明确规定人们在法律上的地位不平等。《法典》规定：“人分上中下三等，每一等人又分上中下三级。此上中下三等，系就其血统贵贱、职位高低而定”。上等人是为数极少的大贵族、大活佛和高级官员；中等人是一般僧俗官员、下级军官以及三大领主的代理人；下等人是占西藏总人口95%的农奴和奴隶。《法典》杀人赔偿命价律中规定：“人有等级之分，因此命价也有高低。”上等上级的人如王子、大活佛，其命价为与其尸体等重的黄金；而下等下级的人如妇女、屠夫、猎户、匠人等，其命价仅为草绳一根。西藏自治区档案馆保存的《不准收留铁匠后裔的报告》记载：1953年，堆龙德庆县一个铁匠的后裔在十四世达赖喇嘛身边做事。当十四世达赖喇嘛发现他是铁匠的后代后立即将其赶走，并命令凡是出身金银铁匠、屠夫等家庭的人均是下等下级人，不能在政府里做事，不能和其他等级家庭通婚。美国纽约州立大学藏学家谭·戈伦夫在《现代西藏的诞生》中指出，人类平等是佛教教义中的一个要素。但是，不幸的是这未能阻止西藏人建立自己的等级制度。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

-- Rigid hierarchy. The "13-Article Code" and "16-Article Code," which were enforced for several hundred years in old Tibet, divided people into three classes and nine ranks, enshrining inequality between the different ranks in law. The Code stipulated that people were divided into three classes according to their family background and social positions, each class was further divided into three ranks. The upper class consisted of a small number of aristocrats from big families, high-rank Living Buddhas and senior officials; the middle class was composed of lower-ranking ecclesiastical and secular officials, military officers, and the agents of the three major kinds of estate-holders. Serfs and slaves constituted the lower class, accounting for 95 percent of Tibet's total population. The provision concerning the penalty for murder in the Code provided, "As people are divided into different classes and ranks, the value of a life also differs." The bodies of people of the highest rank of the upper class, such as a prince or Living Buddha, were literally worth their weight in gold. The lives of people of the lowest rank of the lower class, such as women, butchers, hunters and craftsmen, were only worth a straw rope. The "Report on the Prohibition against Taking in Descendents of Blacksmiths" kept in the Archives of the Tibet Autonomous Region showed that in 1953, when the 14th Dalai Lama found out that one of his servants was a blacksmith's descendent, he immediately expelled the servant, and announced that descendents of gold, silver and iron smiths, and butchers belonged to the lowest rank of the lower class, and were forbidden to serve in the government or marry people from other ranks or classes. Tibetologist Tom Grunfeld of the State University of New York, USA, noted in his book The Making of Modern Tibet that equality among mankind, though incorporated in the doctrines of Buddhism, unfortunately failed to prevent the Tibetan rulers from setting up their own rigid hierarchical system.

    ——残酷的政治压迫和刑罚。当时的西藏地方法典规定：农奴如果“触犯”了三大领主的利益，“按其情节不同挖其眼睛，削其腿肉，割舌，截手，推坠悬崖，抛入水中，或杀戮之，惩戒将来，以儆效尤”。农奴“向王宫喊冤，不合体统，应逮捕械击之；不受主人约束者拘捕之；侦探主人要事者拘捕之；百姓碰撞官长者拘捕之”。不同等级的人触犯同一刑律，其量刑标准和处置方法也大不相同。当时西藏的法典规定：凡仆人反抗主人，而主人受伤较重的，要砍掉仆人手和脚；如果主人打伤仆人，医疗即可；如打伤活佛，则犯了重罪，要挖眼、剁脚、断手或处以各种各样的极刑。

-- Cruel political oppression and corporal punishments. As stipulated in the Tibet's local code, when serfs "infringe upon" the interests of the three estate-holders, the estate-holders can "have their eyes gouged out, legs hamstrung, tongues cut out, or hands severed, or have them hurled from a cliff, drowned or otherwise killed; such punishments are warning to others not to follow their example." Any serf "who voices grievances at the palace, behaving disgracefully, should be arrested and whipped; anyone who disobeys a master shall be arrested; anyone who spy on a master shall be arrested; a commoner who offends an official shall be arrested." When people of different classes and ranks violated the same criminal law, the criteria for imposing penalties and the means of punishment were quite different in old Tibet. As stipulated in the Code, a servant who fought and severely injured his master could have his hands or feet chopped off; but a master who injured a servant only need to give the servant medical treatment; and a servant who injured a Living Buddha was deemed to have committed a felony and would have his eyes gouged out, a limb amputated, or even put to death.

20世纪初到过拉萨的俄国人崔比科夫在《佛教香客在圣地西藏》一书中写道：“在拉萨，每天都可以看到因贪图别人的财产而受到惩罚的人，他们被割掉了手指和鼻子，更多的是弄瞎了眼睛的、从事乞讨的盲人。其次，西藏还习惯于让罪犯终生脖套圆形小木枷，脚戴镣铐，流放到边远地区和送给贵族或各宗长官为奴。最重的处罚自然是死刑，办法是将人沉入河中淹死（在拉萨如此）或从悬崖上抛下去（在日喀则如此）”。（注5）微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

A Russian traveler in Lhasa in the early 20th century, wrote in his book "A Buddhist Pilgrim to the Holy Place of Tibet": "The offenders are mostly poverty-stricken Tibetans punished either by having their fingers or noses cut off, or, in most cases, by being blinded in both eyes. Such disfigured and blind people are seen begging in the streets of Lhasa every day. Exile is another type of punishment. Offenders are shackled and chained, and have to wear a large round wooden collar around their necks all their life. They are sent to remote regions for hard labor or work as serfs for feudal aristocrats and patriarchal chiefs. The most severe punishment of all is, of course, the death penalty, with the victims drowned in rivers (as in Lhasa) or thrown over rocky cliffs (as in Xigaze)." (A Buddhist Pilgrim to the Holy Place of Tibet, Gombojab Tsebekovitch Tsybikoff)

英国人大卫·麦唐纳在《西藏之写真》中写道，“西藏最严重的刑罚为死刑，而喇嘛复造灵魂不能转生之臆说，于是最重之死刑外，又加之以解体干颅之惨状。其最普通的刑法，凡遇死罪，将犯人缝于皮袋之内，而掷于河中，以俟其死而下沉，皮袋在河面之上，约5分钟开始下降，后视其犹有生息，则再掷沉之，迨其已死，于是将其尸体由皮袋取出而肢解之，以四肢和躯体投之河中，随流而去…… 断肢之外，又有一种剜眼之凶刑，或用凹形之煨铁，置于眼内，或用滚油，或开水，倒于眼内，均足使其眼球失去视力，然后将其眼球用铁钩攫出”。（注6）微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

David MacDonald, a Briton, wrote in his book "The Land of the Lama": "Capital punishment is deemed the heaviest category of punishment in Tibet, to which the most inhuman practice of dismemberment is added based on the hypothesis proposed by Tibetanlamas that after dismemberment the human soul cannot be reincarnated. The most common practice is to throw the condemned prisoner into a river in a leather wrapper, which will sink in about five minutes. If he remains alive after this time, he will be tossed into the water again until he dies. Afterwards, the body will be dismembered, and hurled into the river to drift downward with the current... Even more appalling is the practice of gouging out a prisoner's eyes. A piece of heated, U-shaped iron is inserted into the eye sockets, or boiling water or oil is poured in, and the eyeballs are prized out with an iron hook." (The Land of the Lama, David MacDonald)

    寺庙和贵族都有监狱或私牢，可以自备刑具，私设公堂，惩罚农奴和奴隶，甘丹寺就有许多手铐、脚镣、棍棒和用来剜目、抽筋等残酷的刑具。十四世达赖喇嘛的副经师赤江在德庆宗设立的私人寺庙管理机构赤江拉让就曾经打死打伤农奴和贫苦僧人500多人，有121人被关进监狱，89人被流放，538人被逼迫当奴隶，1025人被逼迫逃亡，有72人被拆散婚姻，484名妇女被强奸。

There were penitentiaries or private jails in monasteries and aristocrats' residences, where instruments of torture were kept and clandestine tribunals held to punish serfs and slaves. In the Ganden Monastery there were many handcuffs, fetters, cudgels, and instruments of torture used for eye gouging and hamstringing. The private monastery administrative office set up by Trijang Rinpoche, junior tutor of the present 14th Dalai Lama, killed and injured more than 500 serfs and poor monks, in Dechen Dzong (present-day Dagze County) jailed 121 people, sent 89 into exile, forced 538 into slavery, forced 1,025 commoners into exile, forced 72 divorces, and 484 women were raped there.

    现存的20世纪50年代初西藏地方政府有关部门致热布典头目的一封信件内称：“为达赖喇嘛念经祝寿，下密院全体人员需要念忿怒十五施食回遮法。为切实完成此次佛事，需于当日抛食，急需湿肠一副、头颅两个、多种血、人皮一整张，望立即送来。”为达赖念经做法事要用人血、人头骨和人皮，旧西藏政教合一封建农奴制度的残忍和血腥由此可见一斑。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In the Archives of the Tibet Autonomous Region there is a letter from a department of the Tibet local government to Rabden in the early 1950s, saying that, to celebrate the Dalai Lama's birthday, all the staff of Gyumey would chant the sutra. To successfully complete this ceremony, some special food would be thrown to the animals. Thus, a corpus of wet intestine, two skulls, many kinds of blood and a full human skin were urgently needed, all of which must be promptly delivered. A religious ceremony for the Dalai Lama used human blood, skulls and skin, showing how cruel and bloody the feudal serfdom system under theocracy was in old Tibet.

    ——沉重的赋税和乌拉剥削。农奴主对农奴剥削的主要形式是包括徭役、赋税、地（畜）租在内的乌拉差役。仅西藏地方政府征收的差税就达200多种。农奴为地方政府和庄园领主所支的差，一般要占农奴户劳动量的50%以上，有的高达70%至80%。在封建庄园内，农奴主将土地分成两个部分：一大部分相对肥沃的土地，留作庄园的自营地；另一部分贫瘠的、边远的土地则是以奴役性的条件分给农奴使用的份地，农奴为了使用份地，必须自带农具、口粮，在庄园的自营地上进行无偿劳动，剩余的时间才能在自己的份地上劳动。在农忙或农奴主有事时，还要出人畜力无偿地为农奴主搬运物资、修建房屋，或做其他杂役劳动。除了庄园内差外，农奴还得给西藏地方政府及其下属机构支差，其中负担最重的是运输差，西藏地广人稀，交通不便，各种物资的运输全靠人背畜驮。

-- Heavy taxes and larvee. Serf owners exploited serfs by imposing corvee labor, taxes and levies, and rents for land and livestock. There were over 200 kinds of taxes levied by the former local government of Tibet alone. Serfs had to contribute more than50 percent or even 70 to 80 percent of their labor, unpaid, to the government and manor owners. At feudal manors, serf owners divided the land into two parts: Most fertile land was kept as manor demesne while infertile and remote lots were rented to serfs on stringent conditions. To use the lots, serfs had to work on the demesne with their own farm implements and provide their own food. Only after they had finished work on the demesne could they work on the lots assigned to them. In the busy farming season or when serf owners needed laborers, serfs had to contribute man and animal power gratis. In addition, serfs had to do unpaid work for the local government of Tibet and its subordinate organizations, among which the heaviest was transport corvee, because Tibet is large but sparsely populated and all kinds of things had to be transported by man or animal power.

    据民主改革前调查，属于十四世达赖的摄政达扎的达隆绛庄园共有土地1445克，全劳力和半劳力农奴81人，全年共支差21266天，折合劳动量为67.3人全年服劳役，即83%的农奴全年无偿地为农奴主支差服役。位于山南地区乃东县雅砻河畔的克松庄园，是大贵族索康·旺清格勒的庄园之一。民主改革前，该庄园有农奴59户302人，土地1200克。每年庄园主索康及其代理人摊派的税收18项、差役14项，占劳动日26800天；西藏地方政府摊派的税收9项，差役10项，占劳动日2700多天；热乌曲林寺摊派的税收7项、差役3项，占劳动日900多天；平均每个劳动力每年要给三大领主服210多天的无偿劳役，提供和缴纳1600多斤粮食、100两藏银。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

According to a survey conducted prior to the democratic reform of Tibet, the Darongqang Manor owned by Gyaltsap Tajtra had a total of 1,445 mu of land, and 81 able-bodied and semi-able-bodied serfs. They were assigned a total of 21,266 corvee days per year, the equivalent of an entire year's labor by 67.3 people, 83 percent of the total. The Khe-sum Manor, located by the Yarlung River in present-day Nedong County, was one of the manors owned by aristocrat Surkhang Wang-chen Gelek. Before the democratic reform, the manor had 59 serf households totaling 302 persons and 1,200 mu of land. Every year, Surkhang and his agents levied 18 taxes and assigned 14 kinds of corvee, making up 26,800 working days; the local government of Tibet levied nine kinds of taxes and assigned 10 kinds of corvee, making up more than 2,700 working days; and Riwo Choling Monastery levied seven kinds of taxes and assigned three kinds of corvee, making up more than 900 working days; on average, every laborer had to do over 210 days of unpaid work for the three estate-holders, and contribute over 800 kilograms of grain and 100 liang of silver.

    ——惊人的高利贷盘剥。历代达赖喇嘛设有专管自己放债的机构“孜布”和“孜穷”，把每年对达赖的部分“供养”收入作为高利贷放给群众，牟取暴利。据1950年这两个放债机构账本的不完全记载，共放高利贷藏银3038581两，年收利息303858两。西藏各级地方政府设有为数不少的放债机构，放债、收息成为各级官员的行政职责。根据1959年的调查，拉萨哲蚌寺、色拉寺、甘丹寺三大寺共放债粮45451644斤，年收利息798728斤；放藏银57105895两，年收利息1402380两。高利贷盘剥的收入占三大寺总收入的25%至30%。贵族绝大多数也放高利贷，债息在其家庭收入中一般要占15%至20%。农奴为了活命不得不举债，欠债的农奴占农奴总户数的90%以上。法国旅行家亚历山大·达维·尼尔在《古老的西藏面对新生的中国》中说：“在西藏，所有农民都是终身负债的农奴，在他们中间很难找到一个已经还清了债务的人。” 农奴所负的债务有新债、子孙债、连保债、集体摊派债等等，其中三分之一以上是祖祖辈辈欠下的、永远还不清的子孙债。墨竹工卡县仁庆里乡农奴次仁贡布的祖父曾向色拉寺借粮债50克，祖父、父亲和他三代人还利息达77年，共付利息粮3000多克，可是债主说他还欠10万克粮食。东嘎宗农奴丹增1941年借了农奴主1克青稞，到1951年，农奴主要他还600克。丹增还不起债，只得逃往他乡，妻子被逼死，7岁的儿子被抓去抵债。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

-- Exploitation through usury. Each Dalai Lama had two money-lending agencies. Some money coming from "tribute" to the Dalai Lama was lent at an exorbitant rate of interest. According to re-cords in the account books of the two agencies, in 1950 they lent 3,038,581 liang of silver as principal, and collected 303,858liang in interest. Governments at different levels in Tibet also had many such agencies, and lending money and collecting interest became one of the officials' duties. A survey done in 1959 showed that the three major monasteries, namely Drepung, Sera and Ganden, in Lhasa lent 22,725,822 kilograms of grain and collected 399,364 kilograms in interest, and lent 57,105,895 liang of silver and collected 1,402,380 liang in interest. Revenue from usury made up 25 to 30 percent of the total revenue of the three monasteries. Most aristocrats were also engaged in usury, with the interest accounting for 15 to 20 percent of their family revenues. Serfs had to borrow money to survive, and more than 90 percent of serf households were in debt. French traveler Alexandre David-Neel wrote in his book Le Vieux Tibet Face a la Chine Nouvelle (Old Tibet Faces New China), "All the farmers in Tibet are serfs saddled with lifelong debts, and it is almost impossible to find any of them who have paid off their debts." Serfs were burdened with new debts, debts passed down from previous generations, debts resulting from joint liability, and debts apportioned among all the serfs. The debts that were passed down from previous generations and could never be re-paid even by succeeding generations accounted for one third of the total debts. The grandfather of a serf named Tsering Gonpo in Maizho-kunggar County once borrowed 50 ke of grain from the Sera Monastery. In 77 years the three generations of the family had paid more than 3,000 ke of grain in interest, but the serf owner still claimed that Tsering Gonpo owed him 100,000 ke of grain. There was another serf named Tenzin in Dongkar County who borrowed one ke of qingke from his master in 1941. In 1951 he was ordered to pay back 600 ke. Tenzin could not pay off the debt, and had to flee. His wife committed suicide, and his seven-year-old son was taken away to repay the debt.

    ——社会停滞不前、濒临崩溃。政教合一的封建农奴制度的残酷压迫和剥削，严重窒息了社会的生机和活力，使得西藏长期处于停滞状态。直到20世纪中叶，西藏社会仍然处于极度封闭落后的状态，现代工商业和现代科技、教育、文化、卫生事业几乎是空白，农业生产长期采用原始的耕作方式，牧业生产基本采取自然游牧方式，农牧品种单一退化，劳动工具得不到改进，生产力水平和整个社会的发展水平极其低下。广大农奴饥寒交迫，生存维艰，因饥寒贫病而死者不计其数。拉萨、日喀则、昌都、那曲等城镇中，乞丐成群，到处可见满街要饭的老人、妇女和儿童。美国藏学家谭·戈伦夫指出，虽然有人声称1959年以前一般西藏人的生活中有喝不完的奶茶、大量的肉食和各种蔬菜，但是1940年对藏东地区的一项调查表明：38%的家庭从来没有茶喝，51%的家庭吃不起酥油，75%的家庭有时不得不吃和牛骨头一起煮的、与燕麦面或豆面搀和在一起的野草。“没有证据证明西藏是一个乌托邦理想的世外桃源”。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

-- A stagnant society on the edge of collapse. Ruthless oppression and exploitation under the feudal serfdom of theocracy stifled the vitality of Tibetan society and reduced Tibet to a state of chronic stagnation for centuries. Even by the middle of the 20th century, Tibet was still in a state of extreme isolation and backwardness, almost without a trace of modern industry, commerce, science and technology, education, culture or health care. Primitive farming methods were still being used, and herdsmen had to travel from place to place to find pasture for their livestock.

There were few strains and breeds of grains and animals, some of which had even degenerated. Farm tools were primitive. The level of both the productive forces and social development was very low. Deaths from hunger and cold, poverty and disease were commonplace among the serfs, and the streets of Lhasa, Xigaze, Qamdo and Nagqu were crowded with male and female beggars of all ages. American Tibetologist A. Tom Grunfeld pointed out that, although some people claimed before 1959, ordinary Tibetan people could enjoy milk tea as they wished and a great deal of meat and vegetables, a survey conducted in eastern Tibet in 1940 showed that 38 percent of Tibetan families never had tea to drink, 51 percent could not afford butter, and 75 percent sometimes had to eat weeds boiled with ox bones and oat or bean flour. "There is no evidence to support the picture of Tibet as a Utopian Shangrila."

    大量事实证明，到20世纪中叶，政教合一的封建农奴制度在西藏已经走到了尽头。西藏社会矛盾重重、危机四伏，广大农奴为摆脱绝境不断发动请愿、逃亡、抗租抗差和武装反抗。曾任旧西藏地方政府噶伦的阿沛·阿旺晋美曾指出：“大家均认为照老样子下去，用不了多久，农奴死光了，贵族也活不成，整个社会就得毁灭。”（注7）

Plenty of evidence demonstrated that by the middle of the 20th century the feudal serfdom of theocracy was beset with numerous contradictions and plagued by crises. Serfs petitioned their masters for relief from their burdens, fled their lands, resisted paying rent and corvee labor, and even waged armed struggle. Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme, once a Galoin (cabinet minister) of the former local government of Ti-bet, pointed out that "all believe that if Tibet goes on like this the serfs will all die in near future, and the aristocrats will not be able to live either. The whole Tibet will be destroyed." (The highest school of the Gelug Sect in Tibet. - ed.)

二、波澜壮阔的西藏民主改革

II. Momentous Democratic Reform in Tibet

    实行民主改革，废除政教合一的封建农奴制度，是人类社会进步发展的必然要求，是中国共产党领导的人民民主革命的重要任务，更是西藏社会发展的唯一出路和广大西藏人民的迫切愿望。1959年，中央人民政府在西藏实行民主改革，废除了极端腐朽、黑暗的封建农奴制度，完成了西藏历史上划时代的伟大变革，深刻地改变了西藏人民的命运。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Carrying out democratic reform and abolishing the feudal serfdom of theocracy was an inevitable requirement for social progress. It was a major task of the people's democratic revolution led by the Communist Party of China, and was the only solution for social development in Tibet. Moreover, it reflected the yearning of the overwhelming majority of the Tibetan people. In 1959, the Central People's Government carried out a great historical reform in Tibetan history, and profoundly changed the fate of the Tibetan people by launching the democratic reform and abolishing serfdom, a grim and backward feudal system.

    1949年，在中国人民解放战争取得决定性胜利的背景下，中华人民共和国宣告成立，北平、湖南、云南、新疆、西康等省市在此前后相继以和平方式实现解放。中央人民政府根据西藏的实际情况，决定对西藏也采取和平解放的方针，并于1950年1月正式通知西藏地方当局“派出代表到北京谈判西藏和平解放”。1951年2月，十四世达赖喇嘛任命阿沛·阿旺晋美为首席全权代表，凯墨·索安旺堆、土丹旦达、土登列门和桑颇·登增顿珠等四人为代表，赴北京全权处理和中央人民政府谈判事宜。1951年5月23日，中央人民政府和西藏地方政府的代表签订了关于和平解放西藏办法的《十七条协议》，西藏实现和平解放。和平解放使西藏摆脱了帝国主义侵略势力的羁绊，打破了西藏社会长期封闭、停滞的局面，为西藏的民主改革和发展进步创造了条件。

The People's Republic of China was founded in 1949, when the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) won decisive victories over the Kuomintang troops. Beiping (now Beijing) and provinces like Hunan, Yunnan, Xinjiang and the former Xikang were all liberated peacefully from the rule of the former Kuomintang government. In light of the actual situation in Tibet, the Central People's Government also decided to use peaceful means to liberate Tibet. In January 1950, the Central People's Government formally notified the local authorities of Tibet to "send delegates to Beijing to negotiate the peaceful liberation of Tibet." In February 1951, the14th Dalai Lama sent Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme as his chief plenipotentiary, and Kemai Soinam Wangdui, Tubdain Daindar, Tubdain Legmoin and Sampo Dainzin Toinzhub as delegates to Beijing to handle with full power the negotiations with the Central People's Government. On May 23, 1951, the "17-Article Agreement" was signed in Beijing and Tibet was thus liberated peacefully. The peaceful liberation enabled Tibet to shake off the trammels imposed by imperialist aggressors, brought to an end to the long-term isolation of Tibet and stagnancy of its social development, thus creating favorable conditions for democratic reform and social progress in Tibet.

    《十七条协议》得到西藏各族人民的赞成和拥护。1951年9月26日至29日，西藏地方政府召开有全体僧俗官员、三大寺代表参加的大会，对《十七条协议》进行专门讨论，认为该协议“对于达赖之宏业，西藏之佛法、政治、经济诸方面，大有裨益，无与伦比，理当遵照执行”。十四世达赖喇嘛于10月24日致电毛泽东主席，表示“双方代表在友好基础上，已于1951年5月23日签订了关于和平解放西藏办法的协议。西藏地方政府及藏族僧俗人民一致拥护，并在毛主席及中央人民政府的领导下，积极协助人民解放军进藏部队，巩固国防，驱逐帝国主义势力出西藏，保护祖国领土主权的统一”。1954年，十四世达赖、十世班禅联袂赴北京参加第一届全国人民代表大会，并分别当选为全国人大常委会副委员长和全国人大常委会委员。十四世达赖喇嘛在会上发言，充分肯定三年多来执行《十七条协议》取得的成绩，对民族区域自治的原则和规定表示热烈拥护。1956年4月22日，十四世达赖喇嘛就任西藏自治区筹备委员会主任委员，他在筹委会成立大会上致词时再次肯定《十七条协议》使西藏人民“充分享受到民族平等的一切权利，开始走上了自由幸福的光明大道”。

The "17-Article Agreement" gained the approval and support of people of all ethnic groups in Tibet. In September 26-29th, 1951, the local Tibetan government held a meeting to discuss the Agreement, joined by all ecclesiastical and secular officials and representatives from the three prominent monasteries. The participants concurred that the Agreement "is of great and incomparable benefit to the grand cause of the Dalai Lama, Buddhism, politics, economy and other aspects of life in Tibet. Naturally, it should be carried out." The 14th Dalai Lama sent a telegram to Chairman Mao Zedong on October 24, 1951, stating that "On the basis of friendship, the delegates of the two sides signed on May 23, 1951 the Agreement on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet. The local Tibetan government as well as ecclesiastical and secular people unanimously support this Agreement, and, under the leadership of Chairman Mao and the Central People's Government, will actively assist the PLA troops entering Tibet in consolidating national defense, ousting imperialist forces from Tibet and safeguarding the unification of the territory and the sovereignty of the motherland." In 1954, the14th Dalai Lama and the 10th Panchen Lama participated in the First National People's Congress (NPC) in Beijing, with the former elected vice-chairman of the NPC Standing Committee and the latter a member of the same committee. The 14th Dalai Lama addressed the meeting, fully endorsing the achievements made since the implementation of the "17-Article Agreement" three years ago, and expressing his warm support for the principles and rules regarding the regional autonomy of ethnic minorities. On April 22, 1956, he became chairman of the Tibet Autonomous Region Preparatory Committee. In a speech at the founding of the committee, he reaffirmed that the Agreement "had enabled the Tibetan people to fully enjoy all rights of ethnic equality and to embark on a bright road of freedom and happiness."

    改革西藏社会制度是贯彻执行《十七条协议》的应有之义。《十七条协议》第十一条明确规定：“有关西藏的各项改革事宜，中央不加强迫；西藏地方政府应自动进行改革，人民提出改革要求时，得采取与西藏领导人员协商的方法解决之”。西藏和平解放后，西藏广大人民要求改革的呼声日益高涨，西藏许多上中层的开明人士也认识到，如不改革旧制度，西藏民族断无繁荣昌盛的可能。但是，考虑到西藏历史和现实的特殊情况，中央人民政府对西藏社会制度的改革采取了十分慎重的态度和极为宽容的政策，耐心劝说和等待西藏地方上层统治集团主动进行改革，并给他们以充分的时间。1956年，中央人民政府根据西藏实际，又作出“六年不改”的决定，等待西藏上层的觉悟。1957年1月，国务院总理周恩来访问印度期间向达赖、班禅及随行的西藏地方政府主要官员转交了毛泽东主席的信，传达了中央的决定，强调六年不改，六年之后是否改革，仍然由西藏根据那时的情况和条件决定。1957年2月27日，毛泽东在《关于正确处理人民内部矛盾的问题》中进一步明确指出：“按照中央和西藏地方政府的十七条协议，社会制度的改革必须实行，但是何时实行，要待西藏大多数人民群众和领袖人物认为可行的时候，才能作出决定，不能性急。现在已决定在第二个五年计划（1958－1962年）期间不进行改革。在第三个五年计划（1963－1967年）期内是否进行改革，要到那时看情况才能决定。”可以说，中央人民政府对西藏上层统治集团仁至义尽，作出了最大让步。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The reform of the social system in Tibet is clearly defined in the "17-Article Agreement." Article 11 states explicitly: "In matters related to various reforms in Tibet, there will be no compulsion on the part of the Central Authorities. The local government of Tibet shall carry out re-forms voluntarily, and when people raise demands for reform, they shall be settled by means of consultation with the leading personnel of Tibet." Following the peaceful liberation, amidst the ever-growing demand of the Tibetan people for democratic reform, many enlightened people of the upper and middle classes also realized that, if the old system were not reformed, the Tibetan people would never attain prosperity. In light of Tibetan history and the region's special situation, the Central People's Government adopted a circumspect attitude toward the reform of the social system in Tibet, patiently persuading and waiting for the ruling strata to carry out the reform, and giving them adequate time for the reform. In 1956, the Central People's Government made a decision that no reform should be carried out in Tibet within six years, still awaiting a change in the attitude of the upper ruling class about the reform. During his visit to India in January 1957, Premier of the State Council Zhou Enlai handed a letter from Chair-man Mao Zedong to the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama, and the accompanying senior local Tibetan government officials. The letter informed them of the central government's decision that reform would not be conducted within six years; whether reform should be carried out after six years would still be decided by Tibet according to its own situation and conditions then. On February 27, 1957, Mao Zedong further pointed out clearly in On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People, "According to the 17-Article Agreement reached between the Central People’s Government and the local government of Tibet, the reform of the social system must be carried out, but the timing can only be decided by the great majority of the people of Tibet and their leading figures when they consider it practicable, and one should not be impatient. It has now been decided not to proceed with democratic reforms in Tibet during the period of the Second Five-Year Plan (1958-1962 -- ed.). Whether they will be proceeded within the period of the Third Five-Year Plan (1963-1967 -- ed.) can only be decided in the light of the situation at that time." It is obvious that the Central People's Government showed utmost patience and made the greatest concessions.

    但是，西藏上层统治集团中的一些人为维护农奴主阶级的既得利益和特权，根本反对改革，企图永远保持封建农奴制。他们蓄意违背和破坏《十七条协议》，变本加厉地策划了一系列分裂祖国的活动，直至发动武装叛乱。1952年三四月间，西藏地方政府的司曹鲁康娃和洛桑扎西暗中支持非法组织“人民会议”在拉萨骚乱闹事，公开反对《十七条协议》，要求人民解放军“撤出西藏”。1955年5月，十四世达赖由内地返藏途经四川省，随行的西藏地方政府噶伦索康、达赖副经师赤江借口佛事活动，分别走北路经甘孜、德格，走南路经乡城、理塘，沿途会见当地土司和寺院住持，策动武力对抗民主改革。西藏“人民会议”领导人阿乐群则一行5人以迎接达赖回藏为名，专程赴西康省雅安、康定等地，协同赤江，与理塘寺住持、反动头人及长期潜伏在理塘寺的国民党特务歃血盟誓，组织策划武装叛乱。1957年，洛桑三旦（达赖的三哥）授意昌都江达宗头人齐美贡布按“达赖的指令”，纠合叛乱武装发动局部叛乱。1957年5月在西藏地方政府噶伦柳霞·土登塔巴、先喀·居美多吉的支持下，成立了“四水六岗”叛乱组织，稍后又成立号称“卫教军”的叛乱武装，公开打出“西藏独立”和反对改革的口号，叛乱活动愈演愈烈。武装叛乱分子窜扰昌都、丁青、黑河、山南等地区，破坏交通，袭击中央派驻当地的机关、部队，到处抢掠财物，杀戮干部，残害人民，奸淫妇女。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

However, some members of the Tibetan ruling class were hostile to reform, and wanted to preserve serfdom forever so as to maintain their own vested interests and privileges. They deliberately violated and undermined the "17-Article Agreement," and intensified their efforts to split the motherland, and finally they staged armed rebellions. In March and April 1952, acting Silon (chief minister -- ed.) Sicab Lukangwa and Losang Zhaxi of the local Tibetan government gave secret support to an illicit organization known as the "People's Conference" to oppose the "17-Article Agreement" and create disturbances in Lhasa, demanding that the PLA "pull out of Tibet." In May 1955, as the 14th Dalai Lama returned to Tibet via Sichuan Province, two accompanying local Tibetan government officials -- Galoin Surkang and the Junior Tutor Trigyang -- took two different routes on the pretext of participating in Buddhist activities. The former took the northern route through Garze and Derge, while the latter followed the southern route via Chatreng and Lithang. On their way, they met with local headmen and abbots of various monasteries, plotting an armed rebellion against democratic reform. The leader of the "People's Conference," Gyale Choze, and four others, on the pretext of welcoming the return of the Dalai Lama, made a special trip to Ya-nga and Kangding. They helped Trigyang organize an armed rebellion in collaboration with reactionary headmen, the abbot of Litang Monastery and some Kuomintang secret agents long-hidden at the monastery. They pledged by mixing their blood to stage the armed rebellion. In 1957, Losang Samten (third elder brother of the Dalai Lama) incited Chimed Gonpo, the headman of Jomda Dzong in Qamdo to act upon "the Dalai Lama's orders" and gather rebels to launch a local armed uprising. In May 1957, with the support of galoins Neuxar Tubdain Tarba and Xainga Gyurme Doje, a rebel organization named "Four Rivers and Six Ranges" (namely, the four main rivers and six mountain ranges in Tibet and the Tibetan-inhabited areas of Sichuan Province in southwestern China -- ed.), and later rebel armed forces named "religious guardians" were founded. They raised the slogan of "Independence of Tibet" and "Oppose Re-form," and further intensified their rebellious activities. The armed rebels harassed Qamdo, Dengqen, Heihe and Shannan. They disrupted communication lines, attacked institutions and troops stationed there by the Central Authorities. They looted, cruelly killed officials, persecuted people, and raped women.

    对此，中央人民政府一再严正责成西藏地方政府负责惩办叛乱分子，维护社会治安。但是，西藏上层反动集团错误判断形势，把中央的耐心等待和忍让看作是软弱可欺。他们宣称：“九年来，汉人动也不敢动我们最美妙最神圣的制度；我们打他们，他们只有招架之功，并无还手之力；只要我们从外地调一大批武装到拉萨，一打汉人准跑；如果不跑，我们就把达赖佛爷逼往山南，聚集力量，举行反攻，夺回拉萨；最后不行，就跑印度”。

In view of the situation, the Central People's Government repeatedly urged the local government of Tibet to punish the rebels and maintain public order. However, the reactionary clique of the upper social strata in Tibet took the extreme forbearance of the central government as a sign of weakness. They declared, "For nine years, the Hans have not dared to touch our most glorious and sacrosanct system. When we attacked them, they could only parry our blows without being able to strike back. So long as we transfer a large number of troops to Lhasa from outside, the Hans will surely flee at the first blow. If they don't run away, we will carry His Holiness the Dalai Lama to Shannan, and gather our strength there to launch a counter-attack and seize back Lhasa. If all these efforts fail, we can go to India."

    在国外反华势力的支持下，1959年3月10日，西藏上层反动集团在拉萨经过精心策划，挑起了全面武装叛乱。2月7日，十四世达赖喇嘛主动向西藏军区副司令员邓少东等提出：“听说西藏军区文工团在内地学习回来后演出的节目很好，我想看一次，请你们给安排一下。”邓少东等当即表示欢迎，并请达赖确定演出时间、地点，同时将达赖的这一愿望告诉了西藏地方政府的索康等噶伦和达赖的副官长帕拉·土登为登等人。3月8日，达赖确定3月10日下午3时到西藏军区礼堂看演出。3月9日晚，拉萨米本（管理拉萨老城区治安的官员，相当于现在拉萨市城关区公安局长）却煽动市民说：达赖喇嘛明天要去军区赴宴、看戏，汉人准备了飞机，要把达赖喇嘛劫往北京；每家都要派人到达赖喇嘛驻地罗布林卡请愿，请求他不要去军区看戏。次日晨，叛乱分子胁迫2000多人去罗布林卡，散布“军区要毒死达赖喇嘛”的谣言，呼喊“西藏独立”、“赶走汉人”的口号。叛乱分子还打伤西藏地方政府卸任噶伦、时任西藏军区副司令员的桑颇·才旺仁增，用石头将爱国进步人士、自治区筹委会委员堪穷帕巴拉·索朗降措活活打死，并拴在马尾上拖尸到市中心示众。随后，叛乱头目连续召开所谓“人民代表会议”、“西藏独立国人民会议”，公开撕毁《十七条协议》，宣布“西藏独立”，全面发动武装叛乱。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

With the support of foreign anti-China forces, the reactionary clique of Tibet's upper class elaborately plotted and instigated a full-scale armed rebellion in Lhasa on March 10, 1959. On February 7, the Dalai Lama took the initiative, and said to Deng Shaodong, deputy commander of the Tibet Military Area Command, and other officers: "I was told that after its return from studies in the hinterland, the Song and Dance Ensemble under the Tibet Military Area Command has a very good repertoire. I would like to see its show. Please arrange it for me." Deng and the other officers expressed immediate readiness, and asked the Dalai Lama to fix the time and place for the performance. They also conveyed the Dalai Lama's wish to Surkang and other galoins of the local Tibetan government and Paglha Tubdain Weidain, adjutant general of the Dalai Lama. On March 8, the Dalai Lama said he would go to the performance in the Tibet Military Area Command Auditorium at 3 p.m. on March 10. The Tibet Military Area Command made careful preparations for the occasion. But on the evening of March 9, the Miboin (official in charge of public security of old downtown, equivalent of the present chief of the Public Security Bu-reau of Chengguan District of Lhasa) of Lhasa instigated the citizens of Lhasa by saying, "Tomorrow, the Dalai Lama will go to the Military Area Command for a banquet and a performance. The Hans have prepared a plane to kidnap the Dalai Lama, and take him to Beijing. Every household should send people to Norbulingka (the residence of the Dalai Lama -- ed.) to urge him not to attend the performance in the Military Area Command." The next morning, the rebels coerced more than 2,000 people to mass at Norbulingka, spreading the rumor that "the Military Area Command is planning to poison the Dalai Lama," and shouting slogans such as "Independence of Tibet" and "Away with the Hans." The rebels injured Sampo Cewang Rinzin, a former galoin of the local Tibetan government and at that time a deputy commander of the Tibet Military Area Command. They stoned to death Kainqoin Pagbalha Soinam Gyamco, a progressive patriot and member of the Preparatory Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region. His body was tied to the tail of a horse and dragged through the downtown area. Subsequently, the rebel leaders convened a so-called "people's congress" and a "people's conference of the independent state of Tibet," intensifying their efforts to organize and expand armed rebellion. They brazenly tore up the "17-Article Agreement", declared "the independence of Tibet," and launched a full-scale armed rebellion against the motherland.

    虽然罗布林卡受到叛乱分子控制，同达赖喇嘛的联系十分困难，中央驻西藏代理代表谭冠三仍设法通过爱国人士先后于3月10日、11日和15日给达赖喇嘛三封信。谭冠三在信中表示体谅达赖喇嘛的处境，关心他的安全，并指出叛乱分子猖獗地进行军事挑衅，要求西藏地方政府立即予以制止。达赖喇嘛亦于3月11日、12日和16日先后给谭冠三复信三封。信中说：“反动的坏分子们正借口保护我的安全而进行危害我的活动，对此我正设法平息。”“反动集团的违法行为，使我无限忧伤……以保护我的安全为名而制造的严重离间中央与地方关系的事件，我正尽一切可能设法处理。”在16日的信中，他还表示，已对地方政府官员等进行了“教育”和“严厉地指责”，并表示几天后还可能到军区去。但是，3月17日夜，达赖喇嘛与噶伦索康、柳霞、夏苏等叛乱头目一起逃离拉萨，前往叛乱武装的“根据地”山南。叛乱失败后，又逃往印度。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Although Norbulingka was controlled by the rebels, and it was hard to make contact with the Dalai Lama, Tan Guansan, the acting representative of the central government, managed to send three letters to the Dalai Lama on March 10, 11 and 15, respectively, through patriots. In the letters, Tan expressed his understanding of the Dalai Lama's situation as well as his concern for the latter's safety. He pointed out that the rebels were making reckless military provocations, and demanded that the local Tibet government immediately take measures to stop them. The Dalai Lama wrote three letters in reply to Tan on March 11, 12 and 16, respectively. In his letters, the Dalai Lama wrote, "Reactionary, evil elements are carrying out activities endangering me on the pretext of ensuring my safety. I am taking steps to calm things down." "The unlawful activities of the reactionary clique cause me endless worry and sorrow.... As to the incidents of yesterday and the day before, which were brought about on the pretext of ensuring my safety and have seriously estranged relations between the Central People's Government and the local government, I am making every possible effort to deal with them." In his letter of March 16, he said that he had "educated" and "severely criticized” officials of the local Tibet government. He also said he might go to the Military Area Command a few days later. However, on the evening of March 17, the Dalai Lama, together with galoins Surkang, Neuxar, Xaisur and other rebel leaders, fled from Lhasa to Shannan, the "base" of the armed rebel forces. When the armed rebellion failed, they fled to India.

    达赖喇嘛离开拉萨后，叛乱分子调集约7000人，于3月20日凌晨向在拉萨的党政军机关发动全面进攻。人民解放军驻拉萨部队在忍无可忍、让无可让的情况下，于当日上午10时奉命进行反击。在西藏各族人民的支持下，只有1000余人的解放军，仅用两天时间，便一举歼灭了集结在拉萨地区的叛乱武装，平息了拉萨的叛乱。之后，又继续迅速平息了西藏其他地区的叛乱活动。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

After the Dalai Lama left Lhasa, about 7,000 rebels gathered towage a full-scale attack on the Party, government and military institutions early in the morning on March 20, 1959. The PLA, driven beyond forbearance, launched, under orders, a counterattack at 10 a.m. the same day. With the support of all ethnic groups in Tibet, the 1,000-odd PLA troops completely put down the armed rebellion in Lhasa within two days. Before long, the PLA rapidly quelled the armed rebellion in other places in Tibet.

    正如毛泽东主席指出的：“达赖要叛乱的阴谋从1955年由北京回去后就开始了。1957年初他从印度回来，到1958年布置了两年。”1959年逃亡国外后，十四世达赖及其政治集团更是公然成立所谓“西藏流亡政府”，公开宣布“西藏独立”，重新组建叛乱武装，在中国边境进行多年的军事袭扰，在国际上长期从事反华活动，在西藏和其他藏区策动多起骚乱事件，在分裂祖国的道路上越走越远。

Just as Chairman Mao Zedong pointed out, "The Dalai Lama's plotting to launch a rebellion started just after his return from Beijing in 1955. He prepared this rebellion for two years -- from early 1957, when he returned from India, to 1958." After he fled from China in 1959, the 14th Dalai Lama and his clique went further and further down the road to splitting the motherland. They established the so-called "Tibetan government-in-exile," publicly declared "Tibetan in-dependence," reorganized rebel forces to carry out military harassment along the Chinese border for many years, engaged in long-term inter-national anti-China activities, and instigated many riots in Tibet and other Tibetan-inhabited areas.

    西藏的武装叛乱，从一开始就得到国外反华势力的支持。据西方某媒体1971年1月26日报道，1957年2月，某国情报机构在太平洋某岛训练了“四水六岗”叛乱分子。从1956年到1957年，该情报机构先后遴选了170多名叛乱分子到该国的“康巴游击队员训练基地”受训。接受训练后的数百名藏人被空投回西藏，随身配备了手提机枪，脖子上还挂着装有达赖相片的小金盒。该情报机构共训练了2000名西藏人游击队。1958年7月和1959年2月，该情报机构向“四水六岗”叛乱武装进行了两次武器空投，包括403支步枪、20挺轻机枪和60箱手榴弹，以及几口袋印度卢比。1958年11月，该情报机构通过所谓“麦克马洪线”以南印度占领区，向山南叛军运送了226驮武器装备。次年1月，又通过尼泊尔运入40驮物资，经协噶尔运给山南叛乱武装。该情报机构先后对康区叛军进行了30多次空投，投下的物资多达250吨，包括近万支Ｍ－1步枪、冲锋枪等枪械以及轻便的57无后坐力炮和高射机枪。据另一西方媒体1999年8月16日的文章说：1957年至1960年，西方某国给西藏游击队空投了400多吨物资。该国“每年在西藏行动中共花费资金高达170万美元”。

The armed rebellion in Tibet was supported from the very beginning by foreign anti-China forces. According to a Western media report on January 26, 1971, a certain country's intelligence agency trained members of the "Four Rivers and Six Ranges" in February 1957 on a certain Pacific island. From 1956 to 1957, the above-mentioned intelligence agency handpicked some 170 rebels, and sent them to the "Kamba guerrilla training base" in that country. Several hundred trained "Kamba guerrillas" were air-dropped into Tibet, carrying sub-machine guns, and small gold boxes containing the portrait of Dalai Lama. This intelligence agency trained 2,000 Tibetan guerrillas in total. From July 1958 to February 1959, it launched two weapon air-drops to rebellious armed forces, including 403 rifles, 20 sub-machine guns, 60 boxes of hand-grenades, and several bags of Indian rupees. In November 1958, it transported 226 loads of weapons to the Shannan rebel army via the Indian-occupied area to the south of the "McMahon Line." In January the following year, it transported 40 loads of goods to Shannan rebel army via Nepal and Shekar. It launched more than 30 air-drops to the Kham rebel army, and dropped over 250 tons of goods, including approximately 10,000 M1 Garand Rifles, assault rifles, 57 mm recoilless guns, and antiaircraft machine guns. According to another Western media report on August 16, 1999,a certain Western country air-dropped more than 400 tons of goods to Tibetan guerrillas from 1957 to 1960. This country "spent 1.7 million U.S. dollars on such operations in Tibet annually."

    在达赖出逃途中，上述情报机构改装一架飞机沿途空投物资，以无线电与叛乱武装及附近各情报站联络，并将全部逃亡过程记录在案。香港一媒体1974年2月11日的报道透露：据参与这次行动的人员说，达赖喇嘛离开他的首府是西方某情报机构策划的。该国的间谍飞机曾飞入西藏数百英里，对达赖集团进行空中掩护，空投食品、地图、收音机和金钱，还扫射中国的阵地，并为这次行动拍摄了影片。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

While the Dalai Lama was fleeing, the above-mentioned intelligence agency re-equipped a plane and air-dropped goods for him and his companions on the way, keeping contact with the rebel army and nearby intelligence stations via radio, and recording the whole course of the flight. Based on a Hong Kong media report on February 11, 1974, according to participants in the operation, the Dalai Lama's flight from Lhasa was planned by the Western intelligence agency. The country's spy planes sneaked hundreds of miles into Tibet, providing protection for the Dalai Lama clique from air, air-dropping food, maps, radios and money, as well as strafing Chinese installations and taking photos of the operation.

    鉴于西藏上层反动统治集团已经完全走上叛国的道路，1959年3月28日，周恩来总理发布国务院命令，决定解散西藏地方政府，由西藏自治区筹备委员会行使地方政府职权，由十世班禅额尔德尼代理主任委员职务。与此同时，中央人民政府提出“边平叛边改革”的方针，领导西藏人民掀起了波澜壮阔的民主改革运动，彻底摧毁了政教合一的封建农奴制度，实现了百万农奴和奴隶梦寐以求的当家作主的权利。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Since the reactionary Tibetan ruling class had taken the road of betraying their country, on March 28, 1959, Premier Zhou Enlai promulgated a State Council Decree dissolving the local Tibetan government. The Preparatory Committee of the Tibet Autonomous Region took over local government power, and the 10th Panchen Lama acted as its chairman. At the same time, the Central People's Government implemented a policy of "quelling the rebellion while conducting the reform," and led the Tibetan people to start the surging tide of democratic reform, wrecked the feudal serfdom of theocracy, and helped a million serfs and slaves realize their lifelong wish of being their own masters.

    ——废除封建农奴制的压迫和剥削，解放百万农奴和奴隶。1959年中央政府下令平息西藏叛乱后，立即解散了压迫西藏人民数百年的噶厦政权及其所属的军队、法庭和监狱，废止了旧西藏法典及其野蛮刑罚。紧接着，有计划、有步骤地在农区开展了反对叛乱、反对乌拉差役制度、反对奴役和进行减租减息的“三反双减”运动，在牧区开展了反叛乱、反乌拉、反奴役和牧工牧主两利的“三反两利”运动，在寺庙开展了反叛乱、反封建特权、反封建剥削和算政治迫害账、算等级压迫账、算经济剥削账的“三反三算”运动，在城镇开展了反叛乱、反封建制度、反封建剥削、反封建特权和减租减息的“四反双减”运动，并分期分批地对边境地区进行民主改革，彻底废除了农奴、奴隶对农奴主的人身依附关系，废除了封建制度、封建剥削和封建特权，废除了乌拉差役和高利贷债务。

-- Abolishing the oppression and exploitation of feudal serfdom system, liberating a million serfs and slaves. After the quelling of the armed rebellion in 1959, the Central People's Government immediately dissolved the Kasha regime and its armed forces, courts and prisons, which had oppressed the Tibetan people for hundreds of years. At the same time, it repealed the old Tibetan Code and barbarous punishments. This was followed by a planned and step-by-step campaign in the rural areas against rebellion, corvee labor and slavery, and for reduction of rent for land and of interest on loans; a campaign launched in the pastoral areas against rebellion, corvee labor and slavery, and helping hired herdsmen and herd owners; a campaign launched in the monasteries against rebellion, feudal privileges and exploitation, and to square accounts with political persecution, hierarchical oppression and economic exploitation; a campaign launched in the urban areas against rebellion, the feudal system, exploitation and privileges, and on reduction of rent for land and of interest on loans. In addition, the democratic reform was conducted in the border areas by stages, abolishing the bondage of the serfs and slaves to their feudal masters, as well as the feudal system, exploitation and privileges, and corvee labor and high-interest loans.

    西藏百万农奴和奴隶从此获得翻身解放，成为国家的主人和西藏的主人。他们的生命安全和人身自由从此获得中华人民共和国宪法和法律的保障，不再遭受农奴主的政治压迫、强迫劳动和非人待遇，不再遭受沉重的差税和高利贷剥削。在民主改革中当选为西藏第一个农民协会主任的尼玛次仁，曾经是西藏地方政府噶伦索康·旺青格勒溪卡的农奴。旺青格勒曾说：“尼玛次仁是我的财产，我愿意把他揉成团装在口袋里，随我；我高兴把他拉成条围在腰上也由我。”民主改革后，尼玛次仁说：“现在有法律保障我的人身自由，我再也不是谁的私人财产，活得心里真敞亮。”次仁拉姆曾做过30多年的农奴，1959年民主改革以后，她在山南地区乃东县结巴乡组织了第一个“朗生互助组”，后来她担任了西藏自治区人大常委会副主任。

The one million serfs and slaves in Tibet were emancipated. They became the masters of their country, as well as Tibet. Their lives and personal freedom are now protected and safeguarded by the Chinese Constitution and law. They no longer suffer from the serf-owners' political oppression, forced labor and inhuman treatment, as well as heavy corvee taxes and usurious exploitation. Nyima Tsering, who was elected the first chairman of the Farmers' Association during the democratic re-form, used to be a serf of Surkhang Wangchen Gelek, a galoin of the Tibet local government. Wangchen Gelek once said, "Nyima Tsering is my property. I will do whatever I like to him. If I like, I can roll him into a ball and put him in my pocket, or stretch him into a belt and tie it around my waist." After the democratic reform, Nyima Tsering said, "Now my personal freedom is protected by the law. I am no longer another's private property. How wonderful this is!" Tsering Lhamo had been a serf for more than 30 years. After the democratic reform, she organized the first Nangsan Mutual Aid Team at Kyerpa Township, in Nedong County, Shannan Prefecture. Later, she held the post of vice chairman of the Standing Committee of People's Congress of the Tibet Autonomous Region.

    ——实行土地改革，废除封建农奴主的土地所有制，使农奴和奴隶成为土地的主人。1959年9月21日，西藏自治区筹备委员会通过《关于废除封建农奴主土地所有制实行农民的土地所有制的决议》，决定对参加叛乱的农奴主的土地和其他生产资料一律没收，分配给农奴和奴隶；对未参加叛乱的农奴主的土地和其他生产资料由国家出钱赎买后，分配给农奴和奴隶。据统计，在民主改革中，国家共支付4500多万元对1300多户未参加叛乱的农奴主和代理人的90万亩土地和82万多头牲畜进行赎买。共没收和赎买农奴主土地280多万亩，分给20万户、80万农奴和奴隶，农奴和奴隶人均分得土地3.5亩多。世代为奴的劳动人民站在属于自己的土地上彻夜狂欢，他们欢呼：“达赖的太阳照在贵族身上，毛主席的太阳照在我们穷人的身上。现在达赖的太阳下山了，我们的太阳升起来了。”微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

-- Implementing land reform, abolishing the feudal land ownership, making serfs and slaves masters of the land. On September 21, 1959, the Preparatory Committee of the Tibet Autonomous Region passed the "Decision on Abolishing Feudal Land Ownership System and Implementing Farmers' Land Ownership," stipulating that farm-land and other means of production originally occupied by those serf-owners involved in the armed rebellion were to be confiscated and distributed to landless serfs and slaves, and the land and other means of production of serf-owners who had not participated in the rebellion were to be redeemed by the state and then distributed to the serfs and slaves. According to statistics, in the democratic reform the central government spent 45 million yuan on the redemption of 900,000 mu of land and over 820,000 heads of livestock from more than 1,300 house-holds of serf-owners and agents who had not participated in the rebel-lion. Over 2.8 million mu of land was confiscated or redeemed from serf-owners, and distributed to 800,000 former serfs or slaves of 200,000 households. Each of the former serfs and slaves got about 3.5 mu of land. The laboring Tibetan people who had been enslaved generation after generation stood on their own land, celebrating all night. They cried, "The sun of the Dalai Lama shone on the nobility, while the sun of Chairman Mao is shining on our poor people. Now the Dalai Lama's sun is set, and our sun is rising."

    西藏百万农奴和奴隶第一次成为土地和其他生产资料的主人，焕发出了空前的生产和生活热情，迅速改变了西藏的社会面貌和生活条件。据统计，土改基本完成的1960年，西藏全区的粮食总产比1959年增长12.6%，比土改前的1958年增长17.5%。牲畜存栏头数1960年比1959年增长10%。在民主改革中，西藏建立起第一个供销社、第一个农村信用社、第一所民办小学、第一所夜校、第一个识字班、第一个电影放映队、第一个医疗卫生机构。1959年底，拉萨市区建立居民委员会28个，先后安置8700多名贫苦游民和乞丐就业，救济8500多名生活困难的贫民，收容120多名孤、老、病、残者。1960年，纳金水电站建成发电，拉萨普通市民首次用上了电灯。1959年至1960年两年内，西藏建立起几十个现代化小型工厂，培养了2万多名藏族工人。90%的县通了公路，公路全长达到1.25万多公里。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Tibet's one million serfs and slaves became masters of the land and other means of production for the first time. Their unprecedented enthusiasm for production and life gave rise to a rapid change in Tibet's social situation and their living conditions. When the land reform was basically completed in 1960, the total grain output for Tibet was 12.6 percent higher than that in 1959 and 17.5 percent higher than in 1958, the year before the land reform. Moreover, the total number of livestock was 10 percent more than in 1959. During the democratic reform, Tibet's first supply and marketing cooperative, first rural credit cooperative, first private primary school, first night school, first literacy class, first film projection team and first modern medical organization were established in its history. By the end of 1959, 28 neighborhood committees had been set up in Lhasa, offering jobs to over 8,700 vagrants and beggars, providing relief to more than 8,500 poor people, and taking in over 120 childless, aged, sick and disabled people. In 1960, Ngachen Hydroelectric Station was completed and put into use, bringing electric lighting for the first time to the citizens of Lhasa. In 1959 and 1960, dozens of small-scale modern factories were set up in Tibet, employing over 20,000 Tibetan workers. Tibet's roads built in those two years totaled 12,500 km, and reached over 90 percent of the counties in the region.

    ——废除政教合一制度，实行政教分离和宗教信仰自由。民主改革对参加叛乱的寺庙的土地、耕畜等生产资料一律没收，对没有参加叛乱的寺庙的生产资料实行赎买政策。在民主改革中，一方面，明令规定切实保护宗教信仰自由和爱国守法的寺庙，保护人民有当僧尼的自由和僧尼还俗的自由，保护正常的宗教活动不受干涉，保护有历史意义的寺庙和文物古迹。另一方面，实行“政治统一，信教自由，政教分离”的方针，废除寺庙在经济、政治上的一切封建特权，废除寺庙的封建占有、封建剥削、人身奴役以及寺庙内部的封建管理和等级制度，保障各教派在政治上一律平等；寺庙内的公共资金和财产实行民主管理，作为生产基金和供给寺内僧尼的生活与正常宗教活动之用；寺庙的僧尼按劳动力情况分得的土地，由寺庙管理委员会统一管理，组织生产；寺庙内收入不够正当开支时，由政府予以补助。通过民主改革，西藏所有寺庙均选出了管理委员会，实行民主管理。民主改革去掉了宗教被封建农奴制玷污了的东西，恢复了宗教的本来面目，有效保障了西藏人民宗教信仰的自由，也为西藏实行人民民主的政治制度奠定了基础。

-- Abolishing theocracy, separating religion from state, and protecting religious freedom. During the democratic reform, means of production, including land and livestock, originally owned by monasteries involved in the armed rebellion were all confiscated, while a policy of redemption was introduced with regard to the means of production of monasteries which had not participated in the rebellion. During the democratic reform, on the one hand, citizens' freedom of religious belief, and patriotic and law-abiding monasteries were protected by the law. Citizens have the freedom to become a monk or nun and monks and nuns can choose to resume secular life, regular religious activities as well as historical monasteries and cultural relics were all protected. On the other hand, a policy of "political unity, freedom of religious belief and separation of politics and religion" was adopted, abolishing monasteries' feudal privileges in economy and politics, re-pealing monasteries' feudal occupation and exploitation, and personal slavery, as well as feudal management and hierarchy inside the monasteries, and ensuring that all religious beliefs were politically equal. Public funds and properties inside the monasteries were managed democratically, serving as production funds and for supporting monks and nuns as well as regular religious activities; the monasteries' management committees uniformly administered the land distributed to monks and nuns in accordance with their labor ability, and managed production. When the income of a monastery was unable to cover its regular expenses, the government would grant a subsidy. Through the democratic reform, all the monasteries in Tibet elected their own management committees, and conducted democratic management. The democratic reform enabled the true features of religion to emerge, effectively safeguarded the Tibetan people's freedom of religious belief, and laid a foundation for the introduction of the political system of people's democracy in Tibet.

    ——建立人民民主政权，保障人民行使当家作主的权利。废除封建农奴制度后，翻身解放的西藏各族人民建立起人民民主政权。到1960年底，西藏成立了1009个乡级政权、283个区级政权，78个县（包括县级区）和8个专区（市）建立了人民政权。藏族和其他少数民族干部达到1万多人，其中乡级干部全是藏族，区级干部90%以上是藏族，300多名藏族干部担任了县以上领导职务。4400多名翻身农奴和奴隶成长为基层干部。1961年，西藏各地开始实行普选。昔日的农奴和奴隶破天荒第一次获得当家作主的权利。百万翻身农奴和奴隶穿着节日盛装，手捧哈达，兴高采烈地参加投票，以极大的政治热情和高度负责的精神行使民主权利，选举产生了基层各级权力机关和政府。1965年8月，西藏乡县选举工作完成，有1359个乡、镇进行了基层选举，有567个乡、镇召开了人民代表会议，西藏约92%的地方建立了以翻身农奴和奴隶为主的乡人民政权，54个县召开了第一届人民代表会议，选出了正副县长，建立了县人民委员会。1965年9月，西藏自治区第一届人民代表大会成功召开，西藏自治区正式宣告成立。出席大会的301名代表中，藏族和其他少数民族代表占80%以上，西藏上层爱国人士和宗教界人士占11%多，藏族代表中绝大多数是翻身农奴和奴隶。人民民主政权的建立为西藏人民行使当家作主的权利提供了有力的政治保障。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

-- Establishing the people's democratic state power, ensuring that the people enjoy rights as their own masters. Overthrowing the system of feudal serfdom, the emancipated people of various ethnic groups in Tibet established people's democratic organs of state power. By the end of 1960, Tibet had established 1,009 organs of state power at township level, and 283 at district level,78 at county level (including county-level districts) and eight at prefecture (city) level. The number of cadres of Tibetan and other ethnic groups totaled over 10,000 in Tibet. Among them, township-level ones were all Tibetans, more than 90 percent of leaders at the district-level were Tibetans, and over 300 Tibetan cadres held leading posts at or above the county level. More than 4,400 liberated serfs and slaves were trained as cadres at the grass-roots level. In 1961, a general election was held in Tibet. For the first time, the former serfs and slaves were able to enjoy rights as their own masters. Tens of thousands of liberated serfs and slaves, dressed in splendid attire, holding hada (white symbolic scarves) in both hands, actively participated in the election of power organs and governments at all levels in the region, exercising their democratic rights with great political enthusiasm and a deep sense of responsibility. In August 1965, the election at the level of township and county was completed in Tibet. One thousand three hundred and fifty-nine townships and towns con-ducted elections at the basic level, and 567 townships and towns held their people's congresses. The people's democratic organs of state power at county level were established in 92 percent of the region, with the majority of participants being liberated serfs and slaves. In addition, 54 counties held their first people's congresses to elect the county magistrates and deputy magistrates, and established people's committees. In September 1965, the First People's Congress of Tibet was convened, at which the founding of the Tibet Autonomous Region was officially proclaimed. Over 80 percent of the 301 deputies were Tibetans or other ethnic minorities. More than 11 percent were patriots from the upper strata and religious figures in Tibet. Most deputies of the Tibetan ethnic group to the congress were liberated serfs and slaves. The founding of the people's democratic organs of state power politically guaranteed the Tibetan people's rights as their own masters.

通过波澜壮阔的民主改革，仅用了短短几年的时间，就消灭了在西藏延续数个世纪的封建农奴制度，迅速荡涤了旧社会遗留下来的污泥浊水，使百万农奴和奴隶在政治、经济和社会生活各方面获得了解放，使西藏社会的面貌焕然一新，开创了西藏发展的新纪元。这是西藏社会进步和人权发展史上划时代的重大变革，为西藏社会的跨越式发展确立了崭新的起点。

The surging tide of democratic reform took only a few years to overthrow the feudal serfdom system which had been practiced in Tibet for centuries. The reform liberated Tibet's one million serfs and slaves politically, economically and socially, brought an entirely new look to Tibet's society, and ushered in a new era for Tibet's development. It was an epoch-making reform in Tibet's history of social advancement and development of human rights, marking the beginning of rapid social development in Tibet.

三、半个世纪西藏的历史性巨变

III. Tremendous Historic Changes over the Past Half-century

    民主改革50年来，在中央人民政府的关怀和全国人民的支援下，西藏各族人民以主人翁的姿态迸发出创造美好生活的巨大热情，推动西藏经济社会实现了跨越式发展，各项事业取得了举世瞩目的历史性成就。

Over the past five decades since the democratic reform, and with the care of the Central People's Government and the support of the people of the entire country, the people of all ethnic groups in Tibet, as masters of their own destiny, have displayed great enthusiasm in building a new happy life, promoting development of local economy and society in a frog-leaping manner and scoring historic achievements in various undertakings, which captured world attention.

    ——社会制度实现了历史性跨越，西藏人民当家作主权利有了制度保障。

-- Tibet has experienced historic changes in its social system, which provides an institutional guarantee of the people's right to be master of their own.

    1965年，西藏自治区成立，标志着民族区域自治制度在西藏全面确立，实现了西藏社会制度从政教合一的封建农奴制度向人民民主的社会主义制度的历史性跨越，西藏人民从此进入了当家作主的新时代。昔日的农奴和奴隶从此享有了平等参与管理国家事务和自主管理本地区和本民族事务的政治权利。西藏人民与全国各族人民一样，享有了国家宪法和法律规定的所有权利。他们依法直接选举县、区、乡、镇人民代表大会代表，并由这些代表选举出席全国和自治区、市人民代表大会的代表，依法通过各级人民代表大会行使参与管理国家和地方事务的权力。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In 1965, the Tibet Autonomous Region was founded, marking the establishment of the regional autonomy system for ethnic minorities in Tibet and a historic leap from feudal serfdom under theocracy to socialism featured with people's democracy. From then on, Tibet entered a new era, with the people becoming master of their own destiny. The former serfs and slaves have since enjoyed political right to equally participate in the administration of state affairs and to deal with local and ethnic affairs on their own. The people of Tibet, as other ethnic groups in China, enjoy all rights guaranteed by the Chinese Constitution and other laws. They can directly elect, in accordance with the law, deputies to the people's congresses at county, district, township and town levels, who in turn elect deputies to the people's congresses at the national, autonomous regional and municipal levels. Through the people's congresses at various levels, the people of Tibet exercise their rights, in accordance with the law, to participate in the administration of state and local affairs.

2007年，在西藏的自治区、地（市）、县、乡（镇）四级换届选举中，参选率达到96.4%，有些地方参选率达到100%。经过直接和间接选举产生的34000多名四级人大代表中，藏族和其他少数民族占94%以上。目前，在全国人大代表中，西藏自治区有20名代表，其中12名为藏族公民，门巴族、珞巴族公民各1名。

In the elections for the people's congresses at the autonomous regional, prefectural (municipal), county and township (town) levels in 2007, 96.4 percent of residents with voting right participated in the electoral process. In some places the voting rate was 100 percent. Of more than 34,000 deputies, directly or indirectly elected, to the people's congresses at the aforementioned four levels, more than 94 percent were members of the Tibetans or other ethnic minorities. Of the deputies to the current National People's Congress, 20 are from Tibet, including 12 Tibetans, one Monba and one Lhoba.

    西藏人民自主管理本民族本地区事务的权利受到保障。1965年以来，西藏自治区历任人民代表大会常务委员会主任和人民政府主席都由藏族公民担任，各级人大常委会和政府的主要领导都是藏族公民。西藏自治区各级检察院和法院的主要负责人也均由藏族公民担任。目前，在自治区、地（市）、县三级国家机关组成人员中，藏族和其他少数民族公民占77.97%。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Tibetans' right to independently administrate local and ethnic affairs is guaranteed. Since 1965, the posts of chairman of the Standing Committee of the People's Congress and chairman of the People's Government of the Tibet Autonomous Region have all been held by Tibetans, and the chief leaders of the standing committees of people's congresses and the people's governments at various levels in the autonomous region are also Tibetans. So are the chief heads of local courts and procuratorates at all levels. Tibetans and other ethnic-minority people compose 77.97 percent of the staff of current state organs at the autonomous regional, prefectural (municipal) and county levels.

西藏自治区不仅享有省级国家机关制定地方性法规的权力，而且有权根据本地的政治、经济和文化的特点，决定本地的事务，制定自治条例和单行条例；上级国家机关的决议、决定、命令、指示，如有不适合西藏地方实际情况的，西藏自治机关可以报请批准变通执行或停止执行。

The Tibet Autonomous Region not only has the right to formulate local regulations as a provincial-level state organ, it can also decide on local affairs, and formulate autonomy statutes and separate regulations in line with local political, economic and cultural conditions. When resolutions, decisions, orders and instructions made by higher-level state organs do not suit to situations in Tibet, the autonomous organs can request adjustment or suspension of the relevant documents.

据统计，自治区人大常委会自1965年以来，共制定了250余件地方性法规和具有法规性质的决议、决定，内容涉及政权建设、经济发展、文化教育、语言文字、司法、文物保护、野生动植物和自然资源保护等许多方面，有效地维护了西藏人民在政治、经济和社会生活各方面的特殊权益，促进了西藏各项事业的发展。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Statistics show that since 1965 the Standing Committee of the People's Congress of the Tibet Autonomous Region has enacted 250 local regulations, resolutions and decisions with regulatory nature, which cover political power buildup, economic development, culture and education, spoken and written languages, justice, relics protection, protection of wild animals and plants, and protection of natural resources. They protect the special rights and interests of the Tibetan people in the areas of politics, economy and social life, and promote the development of various local undertakings.

    ——经济建设实现跨越式发展，社会面貌日新月异。

-- Immense social changes have taken place as the economy leaps forward with each passing day.

50年来，中央政府为促进西藏经济社会发展，对西藏实施了一系列优惠政策，在财力、物力、人力等方面给予强有力的支持。

To boost local economic and social growth, the central government has adopted a series of preferential policies toward Tibet over the past half century, and given it strong support in terms of finance, materials and manpower.

据统计，仅在基础设施建设方面，1951年至2008年，国家就累计投入1000多亿元。1959年至2008年，中央财政向西藏的财政转移支付累计达到2019多亿元，年均增长近12%。其中，2001年至2008年累计达1541多亿元。1994年以来，中央先后安排60多个中央国家机关、全国18个省市和17个中央企业对口支援西藏经济建设，截至2008年底，已累计投入对口援藏资金达111.28亿元，安排6056个对口援藏项目，选派3747名援藏干部进藏工作。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

From 1951 to 2008, state investment in infrastructure in Tibet exceeded 100 billion yuan. In the period from 1959 to 2008, a total of 201.9 billion yuan from the central budget went to Tibet, growing nearly 12 percent annually on average. Among the investment, 154.1 billion yuan was allocated in the 2001-2008 period. Since 1994, the central authorities has assigned more than 60 state departments, 18 provincial and municipal governments, and 17 state-owned enterprises to assist Tibet's economic development through projects. By the end of 2008, a total of 11.128 billion yuan of assistance funds had been put in place, with 6,056 assistance projects launched, and 3,747 cadres from across the country dispatched to work in Tibet.

在中央的关怀和全国的支援下，西藏经济社会发展突飞猛进。据统计，1959年至2008年，西藏生产总值由1.74亿元增长到395.91亿元，按可比价格计算，增长65倍，年均增长8.9%。1994年以来，西藏生产总值年均增长达到12.8%，高于全国同期年均增长水平。1959年至2008年，西藏人均生产总值由142元提高到13861元，增加13719元。

Thanks to the care of the central authorities and the support of the whole nation, Tibet has witnessed remarkable progress in economic and social development. From 1959 to 2008, the local GDP soared from 174 million yuan to 39.591 billion yuan, a 65-fold increase or an average annual growth of 8.9 percent at comparable prices. Since 1994 the local GDP has grown at an annual rate of 12.8 percent on average, higher than the national average for the same period. Also, from 1959 to 2008 the per-capita GDP soared from 142 yuan to 13,861 yuan, an increase of 13,719 yuan.

旧西藏没有一条公路，如今，以公路建设为重点，航空、铁路、管道运输协调发展，形成了以拉萨为中心的四通八达的交通运输网络。2008年，西藏基本实现了县县通公路，公路通车里程达到5.13万公里，比1959年的0.73万公里增加4.4万公里；客运量比1959年增加近107倍；货运量比1959年增加11倍以上。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In the old days, there was not a single highway in Tibet. Today, a convenient transportation network has taken shape, with highway transportation as the backbone and air, rail and pipeline transportation as supplement, stretching from Lhasa to all directions. In 2008, nearly all counties in Tibet became accessible by highways. The total length reached 51,300 km, 44,000km more than that in 1959. The volume of passenger transport in 2008 was almost 107 times that in 1959, with an 11-fold increase of cargo transport volume in the same period.

以水电为主，地热、风能、太阳能等多能互补、点多面广的能源体系逐步建成。1959年至2008年，西藏发电量年均增长16.8%，目前已有近210万人用上了电，占总人口的73%。在农村推广清洁能源，4.3万户农牧民用上了沼气。通讯事业快速发展，基本实现了县县通光缆、乡乡通电话。固定及移动电话用户总数达到156.2万户，电话普及率达到每百人55部。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

An extensive energy system has been formed, with hydropower as the mainstay, backed up by geothermal, wind and solar energy sources. From 1959 to 2008, electricity production in Tibet increased by 16.8 percent annually on average. Nearly 2.1 million residents, or 73 percent of Tibet's population, now have access to electrical power. Because of the promotion of clean energy in rural areas, methane has been adopted at 43,000 households. Thanks to the rapid expansion of telecommunications, optical cables have reached all counties, with telephone cables to all townships. The number of subscribers to fixed-line telephones and cell phones reached 1.562 million, which means 55 phones are available for every 100 people.

旧西藏农牧业基本靠天吃饭、靠天养畜，而今，农牧业现代化程度大幅提高，防灾抗灾能力显著增强，科技贡献率达到36%。粮食产量由1959年的18.29万吨增加到2008年的95万吨；粮食平均亩产由1959年的91公斤提高到2008年的近370公斤；年末牲畜存栏数由1959年的956万头（只）增加到2008年的2400余万头（只）。

In the old days, Tibet's agriculture and animal husbandry were completely at the mercy of the weather or elements. Nowadays, modern facilities have been widely introduced, and the capacity to prevent and alleviate damage from natural disasters has been notably improved, with 36 percent of the contribution coming from science and technology. Grain output rose from 182,900 tonnes in 1959 to 950,000 tonnes in 2008. Meanwhile the grain output per mu rose from 91 kg to nearly 370 kg, with the amount of livestock rising from 9.56 million at the end of 1958 to 24 million at the end of 2008.

旧西藏没有现代工业，如今，西藏已初步形成了以优势矿产业、建材业、民族手工业、藏医药业为支柱，包括电力、农畜产品加工、饮食品加工制造等在内的富有西藏特色的现代工业体系。2008年，西藏工业增加值已从1959年的0.15亿元增加到29.68亿元。现代商业、旅游、饮食服务、文化娱乐等在旧西藏闻所未闻的新兴产业飞速发展，成为西藏第一大产业。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

There was no modern industry in old Tibet. Now, a modern industrial system with Tibetan characteristics has formed, with mining, building materials, folk handicrafts and Tibetan medicine as pillar industries, and power, farming and animal product processing and foodstuffs as supplement. The industrial added value skyrocketed from 15 million yuan in 1959 to 2.968 billion yuan in 2008. Modern commerce, tourism, catering, entertainment and other industries that had never been heard of in old Tibet are now booming as primary industries in the region.

    ——人民生活水平大幅度提高，生存和发展状况得到极大改善。

-- People's living standards have been greatly enhanced, with their subsistence and development conditions much improved.

民主改革前，西藏农牧民没有生产资料，几乎终身负债，根本谈不上纯收入，2008年西藏农牧民人均纯收入达到3176元，1978年以来年均增长10.1%，2003年以来年均增长达到13.1%。2008年，西藏城镇居民人均可支配收入达到12482元，比1978年的565元增长21倍。

Before the democratic reform in 1959, Tibetan peasants and herdsmen had barely any means of production. Debt-ridden almost for the whole life, they hardly expected any net income. But since 1978, the per capita net income of Tibetan peasants and herdsmen kept increasing at an average rate of 10.1 percent per year, reaching 3,176 yuan in 2008. The annual growth rate in the 2003-2008 period was 13.1 percent. The per capita disposable income of urban dwellers in Tibet stood at 12,482 yuan in 2008, which was 21 times that of the 565 yuan in 1978.

民主改革前，西藏90%以上的人没有自己的住房，农牧民居住条件极差，城镇居民人均不足3平方米。当时的拉萨城区仅有2万人，而城周围居住在破烂帐篷里的贫民和乞丐就有近千户人。而今，西藏人民的居住条件得到了巨大改善。通过推进新农村建设、实施安居工程，已有20万户、百万农牧民住进了安全适用的新房。2008年，农村居民人均居住面积达到22.83平方米，城镇居民人均居住面积达到33.00平方米。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Before the democratic reform, more than 90 percent of Tibet's residents had no private housing, the peasants and herdsmen had very poor living conditions, and the per-capita housing of urban dwellers was less than three sq m. At that time, Lhasa had a population of 20,000 only, and nearly 1,000 were poverty-stricken or beggar households huddling in tattered shelters on the outskirts. Today, with the construction of a new countryside and the comfortable housing project underway, 200,000 households, comprising nearly one million peasants and herdsmen, have moved into modern houses. By 2008, the per-capita housing area was 22.83sq m in rural areas and 33.00 sq m in urban areas.

目前，从城市到农村都已初步建立起社会保障体系。2008年西藏“五保户”的供养标准达到1600元。2006年西藏人均收入低于800元的农牧民全部纳入最低生活保障，在全国率先建立了农牧区最低生活保障制度。

A social security system has been basically put in place to cover both cities and countryside in Tibet. In 2008, the allowances for each family of the infirm elderly without children, which is guaranteed food, clothing, medical care, housing and burial expenses, was raised to 1,600 yuan. In 2006, Tibet led other farming and pastoral areas in China with a system of basic subsistence allowances which covered all peasants and herdsmen with an income below 800 yuan.

    和平解放前，西藏没有一所现代医疗卫生机构，只有3所设备简陋、规模很小的官办藏医机构和少量私人诊所，从医人员不足百人，加上农牧区的近300名民间藏医，全区平均每千人不到0.4名医务人员。天花、霍乱、性病、斑疹伤寒、猩红热、破伤风等疾病时常流行。

Before the peaceful liberation, there was no medical institution in the modern sense in Tibet, except for three small, shabby government-run organizations of Tibetan medicine and a small number of private clinics, with fewer than 100 medical workers altogether. If the nearly 300 Tibetan medical practitioners in the farming and pastoral areas were included, the total number of medical workers would still have fallen below 400 - less than four medical workers for every 10,000 residents. Smallpox, cholera, venereal diseases, typhoid fever, scarlet fever, tetanus and other epidemics were prevalent.

和平解放后特别是民主改革后，中国政府采取各种措施预防疾病，很快就使一些严重危害人民健康的疾病基本得到控制。从20世纪60年代开始，西藏消灭了天花，各类传染病、地方病发病率大幅度下降。现在，西藏在全国率先实现了城镇居民医疗保险全覆盖，并逐步建立了以免费医疗为基础的农牧区医疗制度，农牧民免费医疗补助人均达到140元。2008年，西藏共有卫生机构1339个，比1959年增加1277个；实有病床床位7127张，比1959年增加6647张；卫生技术人员9098人，比1959年增加8307人；每千人病床数和卫生技术人员数分别达到了2.50张和3.05人，比1959年分别增加2.11张和2.41人。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

After the peaceful liberation, and especially after the democratic reform in Tibet, the Chinese government adopted various measures to prevent diseases, and soon got some diseases that seriously harmed people's health under control. Since the 1960s, smallpox has been eliminated in Tibet, and the incidence of infectious and endemic diseases has declined by a big margin. Today, Tibet leads other places in introducing the medical insurance system for urban residents, and is building a medical system in the farming and pastoral areas based on free medical service, which now grants each farmer and herdsman an annual 140 yuan of medical allowance. By 2008, there were 1,339 medical organizations in Tibet, 1,277 more than in 1959; 7,127 hospital beds, 6,647 more than in 1959; and 9,098 medical workers, 8,307 more than in 1959. The number of hospital beds and medical workers for every 1,000 residents were 2.50 and 3.05, respectively, or 2.11 and 2.41 more than in 1959.

随着医疗卫生条件的改善，西藏的人均预期寿命由和平解放时的35.5岁增加到67岁。据2000年第五次全国人口普查，西藏有80岁至99岁的老人13581人、百岁以上的老人62人，是中国人均百岁老人最多的省区之一。西藏总人口由1959年的122.8万人增加到2008年的287.08万人，其中藏族和其他少数民族人口占95%以上。近50年是几个世纪以来西藏人口增长最快的时期。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Thanks to the improvement of medical services, the average life expectancy in Tibet has increased from 35.5 years in 1959 to 67 years at present. According to the fifth national census, carried out in 2000, Tibet had 13,581 senior residents aged 80-99, and 62 people aged over 100 years. Tibet is one of a few Chinese provinces and autonomous regions having a high ratio of centenarians among total population. The total population in Tibet increased from 1.228 million in 1959 to 2.8708 million in 2008, of which more than 95 percent were Tibetans and members of other ethnic minorities. The past 50 years have seen the fastest population expansion in Tibet for centuries.

    ——传统民族文化得到保护和弘扬，宗教信仰自由受到充分尊重。

-- Traditional ethnic culture is protected and developed, and freedom of religious belief is respected.

政府采取有力措施，促进藏语文的学习、使用和发展。西藏实行藏、汉语文并重，以藏语文为主。目前，所有农牧区和部分城镇小学实行藏汉文同步教学，主要课程用藏语授课。中学阶段也同时实行用藏语和汉语授课，并坚持在内地西藏中学开设藏语文课。在高校和中等专业学校的招生考试中，藏语文作为考试科目，成绩计入总分。西藏自治区成立以来，各级人民代表大会通过的决议、法规，西藏各级政府包括政府所属部门下达的正式文件和发布的公告都使用藏、汉两种文字。在司法诉讼程序中，对藏族诉讼参与人，都使用藏语文审理案件，法律文书也使用藏文。各单位的公章、证件、标识以及机关、厂矿、学校、车站、机场、商店、宾馆、餐馆、剧场、旅游景点和体育场馆、图书馆等的标牌和街道、交通路标等均使用藏、汉两种文字。西藏人民广播电台自1959年建台以来，始终以办好藏语广播为重点，目前共开办有42个藏语（包括康巴语）节目（栏目），藏语新闻综合频率每天播音达21小时15分钟，康巴语广播频率每天播音17小时50分钟。西藏电视台卫视频道开播后，专门开设藏语频道。2007年10月1日藏语卫视实现了24小时滚动播出。目前，西藏有14种藏文杂志、10种藏文报纸。藏文于1984年实现了信息化处理，并开发出与汉英兼容的藏文软件操作系统。藏文编码国际标准于1997年获得通过，成为中国少数民族文字中第一个具有国际标准的文字。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The Chinese government has made huge efforts to promote the learning, use and development of the Tibetan language. In Tibet, importance is given to both the Tibetan and Han Chinese languages, with priority given to Tibetan. At present, both languages are used in teaching in all schools of the farming and pastoral areas, as well as some urban areas, with the major courses being taught in Tibetan. Teaching is also conducted in the two languages in high schools. Moreover, the Tibetan language courses have been available at Tibetan high schools in the hinterland areas of China. In the matriculation examinations for institutions of higher learning and secondary vocational schools, Tibetan is a subject of examination, and the score is included in the total score. Since the establishment of the Tibet Autonomous Region, both Tibetan and Han Chinese have been used for resolutions and regulations adopted by the people's congresses at all levels, and official documents and public announcements of people's governments at all levels as well as their subordinate departments. During judicial proceedings, Tibetan is used in hearing any case involving Tibetan people, and the written Tibetan language is used for legal papers. Both Tibetan and Han Chinese are used for official seals, credentials and signs of all entities; logos of government departments, factories and mines, schools, bus and train stations, airports, shops, hotels, restaurants, theaters, scenic spots, sports venues and libraries; and street and traffic signs. Since its establishment in 1959, Tibetan People's Radio (TPR), with focus on Tibetan-language broadcasting, has developed 42 programs in Tibetan and the Khampa dialect, including 21 hours and 15 minutes of news broadcasting in Tibetan and 17 hours and 50minutes of broadcasting in the Khampa dialect every day. The Tibet Television Station formally opened a Tibetan satellite TV channel, which has been broadcasting 24 hours a day since October 1, 2007. At present, there are 14 Tibetan-language periodicals and 10 Tibetan-language newspapers in Tibet. Computer information processing of the Tibetan script was realized in 1984, and a Tibetan-script operating system compatible with Chinese and English versions was developed. In 1997, an international-standard Tibetan character code was approved, making the Tibetan script the first ethnic-minority script in China with an international standard.

    传统民族文化遗产得到有效保护、传承和发展。国家组织编辑出版了中国戏曲志、中国民间歌谣集成、民族民间舞蹈集成、谚语集成、曲艺集成、民族民间歌曲集成、戏曲音乐集成、民间故事集成等十大文艺集成志书西藏卷，及时抢救和有效保护了西藏大量重要文化遗产。国家将整理出版大型口头说唱英雄史诗《格萨尔王传》作为重点科研项目予以资助，现已搜集300余部，整理出版藏文版62部、汉译本20多部，并有多部被译成英、日、法文出版。民主改革后，布达拉宫、大昭寺、哲蚌寺、色拉寺、甘丹寺、扎什伦布寺、萨迦寺等均被列为国家级重点文物保护单位。20世纪80年代以来，中央和西藏地方财政先后安排7亿多元，用于修复开放一批国家级文物保护单位和各教派的重点寺庙。1989年到1994年，国家拨出5500万元和大量黄金、白银等珍贵物资对布达拉宫进行了一次大的维修。2001年起，又拨专款3.3亿元，用于维修布达拉宫、罗布林卡、萨迦寺三大文物古迹。2007年，中央政府再次拨出5.7亿元，用于“十一五”时期（2006－2010年）对西藏22处重点文物保护单位进行全面维修保护。这在中国文物保护史上是空前的。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The Tibetan cultural heritage is being effectively protected, inherited and developed. The completion of the Tibetan volumes in a 10-tome folk culture series, including Annals of Chinese Operas, A Collection of Chinese Folk Ballads, A Collection of Folk Dances of China's Ethnic Groups, A Collection of Proverbs, A Collection of Folk Performing Art Genres, A Collection of Folk Songs of China's Ethnic Groups, A Collection of Traditional Operas and Music, and A Collection of Folk Tales, has enabled a large number of major items of the Tibetan cultural heritage to be saved and protected in an effective way. The state has also earmarked special funds for the collection, collation and publishing of the text of the lengthy oral epic Life of King Gesar. This is listed as one of the major scientific research projects. So far, over 300volumes of the masterpiece have been collected, with the publication of 62 volumes in the Tibetan language and over 20 volumes translated into the Han Chinese, and many volumes have been translated into English, Japanese and French. The Potala Palace, Jokhang Temple, and the Drepung, Sera, Ganden, Tashilhunpo, Sakya and many other monasteries have been placed under the protection of the state since the democratic reform in Tibet. Moreover, since the early 1980s more than 700 million yuan has been channeled from central and local coffers for repairing a number of venues of cultural relics under state protection and major monasteries of various sects of Tibetan Buddhism, and helping them open to the public. From 1989 to 1994 the central government allocated 55 million yuan and a great amount of gold, silver and other precious materials for the renovation of the Potala Palace. In 2001, a special fund of 330 million yuan was apportioned to maintain and repair the Potala Palace, the Norbulingka and Sakya monasteries. In 2007, the central government allocated another 570 million yuan for the overall repair and protection of 22 key cultural relics sites in Tibet during the 11th Five-Year Plan period (2006-2010). Such an investment was unprecedented in China's history of cultural relics protection.

    西藏人民的宗教信仰自由和正常的宗教活动受到保护。目前，西藏共有1700多处各类宗教活动场所，住寺僧尼约4.6万人，充分满足了信教群众的需求。寺庙学经、辩经、受戒、灌顶、修行等传统宗教活动和寺庙学经考核晋升学位活动正常进行。据不完全统计，西藏现有60余座学经班，学经僧人约6000人。活佛转世作为藏传佛教特有的传承方式得到国家的尊重。西藏的宗教活动多种多样，宗教节日频繁举行。20世纪80年代以来，西藏陆续恢复了各教派各类型宗教节日40余个。僧俗信教群众每年都组织和参加萨噶达瓦节、雪顿节等各种各样的宗教和传统活动。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The freedom of religious belief and normal religious activities of the Tibetan people are protected. Today, there are more than 1,700 religious venues in Tibet, with more than 46,000 resident monks and nuns, which can fully meet the needs of religious believers in Tibet. Various traditional Buddhist activities are carried out in the normal way - from sutra studies and debates to abhisheka (consecration) and other Buddhist practices, as well as the system of academic degrees and ordination through examinations. According to incomplete statistics, there are now more than 60 classes for sutra studies in Tibet, with 6,000 novice monks. As a unique way of passing on Tibetan Buddhism, the Living Buddha reincarnation system receives respect from the state. In Tibet, religious activities are rich in content and diverse in form, with religious festivals celebrated frequently. Since the early 1980s, more than 40 religious festivals have been successively resumed. Monks and laymen organize and take part in the Sakadawa Festival, Shoton (Yogurt) Festival and other religious and traditional activities every year.

    ——现代教育和新闻文化事业全面发展，人民的文化教育水平不断提高。

-- Modern education and the media are developed in an all-round way; the educational level of the people is constantly improving.

旧西藏没有一所现代意义上的学校，适龄儿童入学率不足2%，文盲率高达95%。50年来，国家投入大量资金发展西藏教育事业，使西藏在全国率先实现了城乡免费义务教育。从1985年开始，在农牧区实行以寄宿制为主的中小学校办学模式，并对义务教育阶段的农牧民子女实行包吃、包住、包学习费用的“三包”政策。2008年，西藏73个县（市、区）已全部实现普及六年义务教育和基本扫除文盲，其中70个县完成普及九年义务教育，文盲率下降到2.4%。小学学龄儿童入学率达到98.5%，初中入学率达到92.2%，高中入学率达到51.2%。据统计，西藏现有小学884所、普通中学117所、教学点1237个。2008年，西藏人均受教育年限已达6.3年。2008年，西藏有本专科院校6所，在校学生近3万人，高等教育入学率已达19.7%。还有中等专（职）业学校10所，在校生2.1万人。20多年来，全国先后有20个省、直辖市的28所学校开办内地西藏班（校），有53所内地重点高中、90多所高等学校招收西藏班学生，累计招收初中生36727人，高中（中专）生30370人，高校本专科生1.2万余人，为西藏培养输送了1.8万余名各级各类建设人才。目前，内地西藏班在校生总数18640人。现代科学技术迅速发展，科技队伍不断壮大，2007年各类专业技术人员达到46508人，其中，以藏族为主的少数民族技术人员达31487人。一批博士、硕士、科学家、工程师等高级人才脱颖而出，成为推动西藏发展的生力军。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In old Tibet there was not a single school in the modern sense. The enrollment rate for school-age children was less than two percent, while the illiteracy rate was as high as 95 percent. During the past 50 years, the central government has invested a huge amount of funds in education in Tibet, making Tibet the first place in China to enjoy free compulsory education in both urban and rural areas. Since 1985, the state has set up boarding primary and high schools in farming and pastoral areas, and covered all tuition as well as food and lodging expenses for students at the stage of compulsory education from Tibet's farming and pastoral families. In 2008, all 73 counties (cities and districts) in Tibet realized six-year compulsory education and basically wiped out illiteracy. In 70 counties, nine-year compulsory education is being practiced, and the illiteracy rate has fallen to 2.4 percent overall. The enrollment rate for primary school-age children has reached 98.5 percent, that for junior high school 92.2 percent, and that for senior high school 51.2 percent. There are 884 primary schools, 117 high schools and 1,237 teaching venues now in Tibet. The average educational level of people in Tibet reached 6.3 years in 2008. There are six institutions of higher learning, with about 30,000 students and an enrollment rate of 19.7 percent, and 10 secondary vocational schools, with the number of students totaling 21,000. Over the past 20 years, in 20 hinterland provinces and municipalities of China, 28 junior and senior high schools have classes specially for Tibetan students, 53 key senior high schools and over 90 institutions of higher learning have accumulatively enrolled 36,727 junior high school students, 30,370senior high school students (including secondary vocational school students), and 12,000 university and college students. With these efforts, more than 18,000 professionals have been trained for the development of Tibet. At present, the number of Tibetan students in these schools has reached 18,640. Modern science and technology in Tibet has developed rapidly, and the number of related personnel keeps increasing. There were 46,508 professionals of various kinds in 2007; among them 31,487 are of ethnic minorities, with Tibetans as the majority. Large numbers of highly educated Tibetans, including some with PhD and MA, as well as scientists and engineers, have become a major force in promoting Tibet's development.

    现代新闻文化事业从无到有，迅速发展。西藏现有2家图书出版社、2家音像出版社，有各类印刷厂35个，有公开发行的报纸23种、期刊34种，全区7个地市都有藏汉两种文字的报纸。西藏有广播电视台9座，中波广播转播台39座，县级以上调频广播转播台76座，县级以上（含口岸）电视转播台80座，有线电视转播台76座，乡（镇）广播电视“村村通”站9111座。广播、电视人口综合覆盖率分别从1978年的18%和2%上升到2008年的88.8%和89.9%，实现了全区乡（镇）、行政村通广播电视的目标。西藏现有电影放映机构564个，管理机构82个，农牧区放映队478个，放映点7697个，电影放映已覆盖到98%的行政村，全区农牧民每月人均看电影1.64场。目前，西藏共有各级群众艺术馆、文化馆（站）257个，各类专业文艺演出团体10个，民间艺术团18个，群众性业余演出团体660个。新闻文化事业的发展为人民群众了解新闻、获取信息和休闲娱乐创造了条件，丰富了西藏人民的精神文化生活。

The modern press and publishing industry in Tibet started from scratch, and has developed rapidly. Now, Tibet has two publishing houses for books, and two for audio-visual products, 35 printing houses of various types, 23 openly distributed newspapers and 34 periodicals. Each of Tibet's seven prefectures and (prefecture-level) cities has newspapers in Tibetan and Han Chinese. Tibet has nine radio and TV stations, 39 medium-wave transmitting and relay stations, 76 FM radio transmitting and relay stations above the county level, 80 TV transmitting stations above the county (including port city) level, 76 cable TV transmitting stations and 9,111 radio and TV stations at the township and village levels. From 1978 to 2008, the radio and TV coverage rates in Tibet have risen from 18 percent and two percent to 88.8 percent and 89.9 percent, respectively, achieving the target of extending radio and TV coverage to each town and administrative village of the region. In addition, there are 564 movie-projection agencies, 82 movie-projection management agencies, 478 projection teams and 7,697 projection locations in Tibet's farming and pastoral areas, covering 98 percent of the region's administrative villages, with each farmer or herder watching 1.6 movies per month. Besides, there are 257 public art and cultural centers at all levels, 10 professional art performance troupes, 18folk art performance troupes, and 660 amateur performance teams. The development of the media and cultural services provide convenience for the people in Tibet to acquire the latest news, get access to knowledge and information, and entertain themselves in their spare time, enriching their cultural life.

结束语

Conclusion

    50年沧桑巨变，西藏经历了从黑暗走向光明、从落后走向进步、从贫穷走向富裕、从专制走向民主、从封闭走向开放的光辉历程。当前，西藏经济发展、社会进步、文化繁荣、民生改善、民族团结、政通人和，正处于历史上最好的发展时期。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Over the past 50 years, tremendous changes have taken place in Tibet, as it has experienced a process from darkness to brightness, from poverty to prosperity, from autocratic rule to democracy, and from self-seclusion to opening up. At present, Tibet is in its best period of historical development with rapid economic and social progress, cultural prosperity, improved living conditions, national unity, good government and harmonious people.

   历史雄辩地证明，在120多万平方公里的土地上实行民主改革，废除延续了几个世纪的政教合一的封建农奴制，使百万农奴和奴隶站起来，这不仅是中国人权发展史上一个十分重要的篇章，而且在国际禁奴史上写下了浓墨重彩的一笔，无疑是人类走向文明进步的历程中彪炳千秋的一个伟大壮举。没有民主改革，就没有占西藏人口95%的广大劳动人民的翻身解放，就没有西藏社会的跨越式发展，就没有西藏人权事业的发展进步，就没有西藏各族人民今天的美好生活。

History has convincingly proved that instituting the democratic reform in this 1.2-million-sq-km land and abolishing the centuries-old feudal serfdom of theocracy to emancipate one million serfs and slaves is of great significance not only in the history of China's human rights development, but also in the world's anti-slavery history. This is a great page in the progress of human civilization that will shine throughout the ages. Without the democratic reform, there would have been no emancipation of the laborers constituting 95 percent of the Tibetan population, no frog-leaping social progress and human rights development in Tibet, and no happy life for all ethnic groups in Tibet today.

    历史雄辩地证明，十四世达赖及其政治集团是旧西藏政教合一的封建农奴制度和极少数农奴主阶级的总代表，是旧西藏政治、经济和文化资源的垄断者和既得利益者。他们与占西藏人口绝大多数的广大劳动人民存在着根本的利害冲突，与西藏社会发展进步的要求和人类社会的发展规律存在着不可调和的深刻矛盾。这就决定了达赖集团顽固反对民主改革的必然性，决定了他们决不会自动退出历史舞台，决不会自动放弃自己的特权，也决不会甘心自己的失败。50年前，为了维护政教合一的封建农奴制及其特权“永远不改”，达赖集团不惜发动以分裂祖国为目的的武装叛乱。叛逃国外50年来，他们也从来没有放弃过恢复政教合一的封建农奴制的图谋。他们在境外建立和维持着以十四世达赖为政教首脑的政教合一的所谓“西藏流亡政府”，在西方反华势力的支持下，一刻也没有停止过破坏西藏发展稳定和分裂国家的活动。他们在国际上颠倒黑白，大造舆论，把自己装扮成“西藏人民”的代言人，把旧西藏政教合一的封建农奴制社会美化为天堂式的“香格里拉”，把实行民主改革、推动西藏发展进步指责为“灭绝文化”、“毁灭宗教”、“侵犯人权”。这说明，十四世达赖及其政治集团是多么不愿意看到政教合一封建农奴制的覆灭和西藏各族人民在人民民主的社会主义制度下实现当家作主，多么不愿意看到农奴主阶级特权的丧失和西藏各族人民过上幸福安康的生活，又是多么希望复辟已被扫进历史垃圾堆的政教合一的封建农奴制度，多么希望恢复他们失去的封建农奴主阶级统治的“天堂”。这也说明，我们与达赖集团之间分歧和斗争的实质，根本不是自治与不自治的问题，而始终是进步与倒退、统一与分裂的斗争。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

History has convincingly proved that the 14th Dalai Lama and his political clique are the chief representatives of old Tibet's theocratic feudal serfdom and a small number of serf-owners who monopolized with vested interests old Tibet's political, economic and cultural resources. There are fundamental conflicts of interests between them and the Tibetan laboring people who constitute the overwhelming majority of the Tibetan population, and there are irreconcilable and profound contradictions between them and the need for social progress in Tibet as well as the rules for the development of human society. This means that the Dalai clique is destined to remain anti-democratic reform, that they will not quit the stage of history and give up their privileges by themselves, and that they will not concede defeat. Fifty years ago, the Dalai clique staged an armed rebellion, aiming to separate Tibet from the motherland so as to maintain the theocratic feudal serfdom and to preserve their privileges forever. Since fleeing overseas 50 years ago, they have never stopped trying to restore the system of theocratic feudal serfdom. With the support of anti-China forces, they set up and maintained a so-called "Tibetan government-in-exile" with the 14th Dalai Lama as the theocratic leader, and have never ceased their separatist activities to sabotage the steady development of Tibet. They have turned black into white in an attempt to mislead the international community, pretending to be speaking on behalf of the "Tibetan people." They whitewash the old Tibetan society of feudal serfdom under theocracy as some sort of Shangri-la, denigrating the implementation of the democratic reform to promote social progress as "destruction of culture and religion" and "infringement of human rights." This shows how they hate to see the abolition of the theocratic feudal serfdom, to see the loss of the serf-owners' privileges, how they hate to see the Tibetans and people of other ethnic groups becoming their own masters under the socialist democratic system, and leading a happy and peaceful life; and how they long to restore the feudal serfdom of theocracy that has been swept into the dustbin of history so as to regain the "paradise" under the rule of the feudal serf-owners. This also shows that our essential difference from and fight with the Dalai clique are not merely over the question of autonomy. This is a struggle between progress and retrogression, and between unity and separation.

    历史雄辩地证明，废除农奴制、解放农奴和奴隶，维护国家统一、反对民族分裂，是维护人权和国家主权的进步与正义的事业。历史上，美国政府曾经为了反南部分裂主义和奴隶制度，解放黑奴，不惜发动长达4年之久的大规模国内战争，耗费150多亿美元的战争费用，造成110多万人员伤亡和不可估量的各种损失。领导这场战争的林肯总统因此而名垂青史，至今仍为美国人民和世界人民所称颂。达赖集团为维护政教合一的封建农奴制，悍然发动分裂祖国的大规模武装叛乱，中国政府采取措施平息叛乱，维护国家统一，解放百万农奴和奴隶，其在人类历史上的进步意义与美国国内战争和解放黑奴相比毫不逊色。然而，一些西方反华势力却无视客观事实，颠倒是非，将政教合一的封建农奴制度的总代表、西藏封建农奴主的总代表十四世达赖吹捧为“人权卫士”、“和平使者”、“精神领袖”，而将废除封建农奴制、解放百万农奴和奴隶的中国政府指责为“侵犯人权”。这是十分荒谬的，也是发人深思的。事实上，所谓“西藏问题”从一开始就是帝国主义妄图瓜分中国的产物，是近代帝国主义列强妄图变中国为其殖民地、半殖民地图谋的一部分。1959年，达赖集团发动分裂国家的武装叛乱就是在帝国主义势力支持和策动下发生的。达赖集团叛逃国外以后，西方反华势力也从来没有停止过对达赖集团“藏独”分裂活动的怂恿、支持和训练。这说明，所谓“西藏问题”根本不是什么民族问题、宗教问题和人权问题，而是西方反华势力企图遏制中国、分裂中国、妖魔化中国的问题。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

History has convincingly proved that abolition of serfdom, the liberation of serfs and slaves, and keeping national unity safe against separation are a progressive and just cause for the protection of human rights and maintenance of national sovereignty. Looking back upon history, the American government once started a four-year-long civil war against the secessionist South to abolish slavery, at a cost of over 15 billion U.S. dollars, more than 1.1 million casualties and other incalculable losses. President Abraham Lincoln was crowned with eternal glory for leading the war, and is still extolled by the American people today, as well as by other people all around the globe. When the Dalai clique staged the large-scale armed rebellion to retain the theocratic feudal serfdom and to split the country, the Chinese government took actions to quell the rebellion for the sake of defending national unity and emancipating the serfs and slaves of Tibet. The historical significance of this righteous action is entirely comparable to the emancipation of the slaves in the American civil war. Yet the anti-China forces in the West simply ignore the historical facts and confuse right and wrong by exalting the 14th Dalai Lama -- chief representative of the theocratic feudal serfdom and the Tibetan serf-owners -- as a "guardian of human rights," "peace envoy," and "spiritual leader," and accusing the Chinese government that abolished feudal serfdom and emancipated the serfs and slaves of "trespassing on human rights." This is totally absurd, and provokes deep thought. In fact, the so-called "Tibet issue" was the outcome of the imperialist attempts to partition China in modern times, as a part of the big powers' conspiracy to turn China into a colony or semi-colony. The armed rebellion staged by the Dalai clique to split the country in 1959 was supported and instigated by imperialist forces. Ever since the Dalai clique went into exile, Western anti-China forces have never ceased their instigation and training of the Dalai clique to support their split and sabotage activities. It is thus clear that the so-called "Tibet issue" is by no means an ethnic, religious and human rights issue; rather, it is the Western anti-China forces' attempt to restrain, split, and demonize China.

    历史也雄辩地证明，复辟没有出路，分裂没有前途。时代要前进，社会要进步，这是不可阻挡的历史潮流。包括西藏人民在内的中国各族人民维护国家统一和主权的意志不可动摇，坚持中国共产党领导、坚持中国特色社会主义道路、坚持民族区域自治制度的意志不可动摇，推动西藏实现现代化、建设团结民主富裕文明和谐的新西藏的意志不可动摇。达赖集团搞“西藏独立”没有出路，打着“高度自治”旗号谋求半独立、变相独立也没有出路。达赖集团不论以什么借口，妄图在西藏开历史倒车，恢复封建农奴制统治，这是饱尝封建农奴制之苦、亲历新西藏之福的西藏各族人民坚决不会答应的，也是注定要失败的。十四世达赖喇嘛只有真正放弃“西藏独立”的主张，放弃任何复辟旧制度的图谋，承认西藏是中国不可分割的一部分，解散所谓“西藏流亡政府”，停止一切分裂国家的活动，才是唯一的出路。十四世达赖喇嘛必须对自己的政治主张和行为进行彻底的反思和根本的改正。中央政府对十四世达赖喇嘛回到爱国立场的大门始终是敞开的，今后也是敞开的。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

History has also convincingly proved that there is no way to restore the old order, and there is no prospect for the success of any separatist attempt. Time goes by, and social progress is inevitable; this is a historical trend that no one can resist. The will of the people of all ethnic groups in China, including the Tibetans, shall never be shaken from safeguarding national unity and sovereignty, from following the socialist road with Chinese characteristics under the leadership of the Communist Party of China, from holding on to the system of regional autonomy, from promoting the realization of modernization in Tibet, and from building a new, united and democratic Tibet with a prosperous, civilized and harmonious society. There is no way for the Dalai clique to uphold "Tibetan independence," neither will it succeed in its attempt to seek semi-independence or covert independence under the banner of "a high degree of autonomy." Whatever pretexts the Dalai clique uses to try to turn back the wheel of history and to restore the rule of feudal serfdom, the Tibetan people and people of other ethnic groups who personally experienced the misery under the serfdom system and the happy life in Tibet today will never allow it. The Dalai clique's attempts are doomed to failure. The only way out for the 14th Dalai Lama is to give up advocating "Tibetan independence" and any attempt to restore the old system, to admit that Tibet is an inalienable part of Chinese territory, to disband the so-called "Tibetan government-in-exile" and stop all his activities aimed at splitting the country. The 14th Dalai Lama must thoroughly reflect upon and correct his political position and behavior. The central government has opened and will always keep its door open for the 14th Dalai Lama to return to a patriotic stand.  

注 解

    ①埃德蒙·坎德勒：《拉萨真面目》（尹建新、苏平译，西藏人民出版社，1989年）。

    ②埃德蒙·坎德勒：《拉萨真面目》（尹建新、苏平译，西藏人民出版社，1989年）。

    ③查尔斯·贝尔：《十三世达赖喇嘛传》（冯其友等译，西藏社会科学院印，1985年）。

    ④梅·戈尔斯坦：《西藏现代史（1913－1951）——喇嘛王国的覆灭》（杜永彬译，时事出版社，1995年8月第3次印刷）。

    ⑤崔比科夫：《佛教香客在圣地西藏》（王献军译，西藏人民出版社，1993年）。

    ⑥大卫·麦唐纳：《西藏之写真》（郑宝善译，南京：作者自刊，1935年）。

    ⑦阿沛·阿旺晋美：《西藏历史发展的伟大转折》，载《中国藏学》1991年第1期。