中国的少数民族政策及其实践
National Minorities Policy and Its Practice in China
中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室
Information Office of the State Council of the Peoples Republic of China
一九九九年九月·北京
June 2000, Beijing
目 录
Contents
一、统一的多民族国家
I. A United Multi-Ethnic Country
二、坚持民族平等团结
II. Adherence to Equality and Unity Among Ethnic Groups
三、实行民族区域自治制度
III. Regional Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities
四、促进各民族共同发展
IV. Promoting the Common Development of All Ethnic Groups
五、保护和发展少数民族文化
V. Preservation and Development of the Cultures of Ethnic Minorities
一、统一的多民族国家
I. A United Multi-Ethnic Country
中华人民共和国是全国各族人民共同缔造的统一的多民族国家。迄今为止，通过识别并经中央政府确认的民族有56个，即汉、蒙古、回、藏、维吾尔、苗、彝、壮、布依、朝鲜、满、侗、瑶、白、土家、哈尼、哈萨克、傣、黎、傈僳、佤、畲、高山、拉祜、水、东乡、纳西、景颇、柯尔克孜、土、达斡尔、仫佬、羌、布朗、撒拉、毛南、仡佬、锡伯、阿昌、普米、塔吉克、怒、乌孜别克、俄罗斯、鄂温克、德昂、保安、裕固、京、塔塔尔、独龙、鄂伦春、赫哲、门巴、珞巴、基诺等民族。在中国，由于汉族以外的55个民族相对汉族人口较少，习惯上被称为“少数民族”。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The People's Republic of China is a united multi-ethnic state founded jointly by the people of all its ethnic groups. So far, there are 56 ethnic groups identified and confirmed by the Central Government, namely, the Han, Mongolian, Hui, Tibetan, Uygur, Miao, Yi, Zhuang, Bouyei, Korean, Manchu, Dong, Yao, Bai, Tujia, Hani, Kazak, Dai, Li, Lisu, Va, She, Gaoshan, Lahu, Shui, Dongxiang, Naxi, Jingpo, Kirgiz, Tu, Daur, Mulam, Qiang, Blang, Salar, Maonan, Gelo, Xibe, Achang, Pumi, Tajik, Nu, Ozbek, Russian, Ewenki, Deang, Bonan, Yugur, Jing, Tatar, Drung, Oroqen, Hezhen, Moinba, Lhoba and Jino. As the majority of the population belongs to the Han ethnic group, China's other 55 ethnic groups are customarily referred to as the national minorities.
1990年中国第四次人口普查的数据表明，在全国总人口中，汉族人口占91．96％，少数民族人口占8．04％①。1995年全国1％人口抽样调查表明，在中国12亿多人口中，少数民族人口为10846万人，占全国总人口的8．98％，比1990年提高了0．94个百分点。
According to the fourth national census conducted in 1990, of the country's total population 91.96 percent belong to the Han ethnic group, and 8.04 percent belong to minority ethnic groups1. A sample survey conducted among one percent of the total population in 1995 showed that 108.46 million people belonged to minority ethnic groups, accounting for 8.98 percent of the country's total population of more than 1.2 billion, a 0.94 percentage point increase over the figure in 1990.
中国各民族分布的特点是：大杂居、小聚居、相互交错居住。汉族地区有少数民族聚居，少数民族地区有汉族居住。这种分布格局是长期历史发展过程中各民族间相互交往、流动而形成的。中国少数民族人口虽少，但分布很广。全国各省、自治区、直辖市都有少数民族居住，绝大部分县级单位都有两个以上的民族居住。目前，中国的少数民族主要分布在内蒙古、新疆、宁夏、广西、西藏、云南、贵州、青海、四川、甘肃、辽宁、吉林、湖南、湖北、海南、台湾等省、自治区②。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
China's ethnic groups live together over vast areas while some live in individual concentrated communities in small areas. In some cases minority peoples can be found living in concentrated communities in areas inhabited mainly by the Han people, while in other cases the situation is just the other way round. This distribution pattern has taken shape throughout China's long history of development as ethnic groups migrated and mingled. The national minorities, though small in numbers, are scattered over vast areas. Minority peoples live in every province, autonomous region and municipality directly under the Central Government, and in most county-level units two or more ethnic groups live together. Now minority peoples are mainly concentrated in provinces and autonomous regions such as in Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Ningxia, Guangxi, Tibet, Yunnan, Guizhou, Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu, Liaoning, Jilin, Hunan, Hubei, Hainan and Taiwan2.
中国自古以来就是一个统一的多民族国家。公元前221年，中国建立了第一个统一的多民族的中央集权国家——秦朝。今天中国的广西、云南等少数民族较为集中的地方都在秦朝统一政权管辖下，并设有郡县加以统治。汉朝（公元前206年—公元220年）继承秦制，中央集权的封建国家更加强大。汉朝在西域（汉朝以后对今中国甘肃敦煌以西地区的总称）置都护府，增设17郡统辖四周各民族，形成了包括今天新疆各族人民先民在内的疆域宽广的国家。在汉朝与周边的少数民族进行频繁的各种交往活动中，汉朝之名也遂被其他民族用来称呼华夏民族，形成了世界上人数最多的民族——汉族。经过秦朝的开创、汉朝的巩固与发展，中国统一的多民族国家从此奠定。
China has been a united multi-ethnic country since ancient times.In 221 B.C., the first united, multi-ethnic, centralized state--the QinDynasty--was founded in China. Today's Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and Yunnan Province, where minority peoples are concentrated, were prefectures and counties under the jurisdiction of the united Qin regime. During the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.), the centralized feudal state became even more powerful by inheriting the Qin system. The Han Dynasty set up a Frontier Command Headquarters in the Western Regions (a general term for today's territory west of Dunhuang, Gansu Province, since the Han Dynasty) and added 17 prefectures governing the people of all ethnic groups there. In this way, a state with a vast territory embracing the ancestors of the various peoples living in Xinjiang today emerged. In the course of the frequent communication between the Han Dynasty and the surrounding minority peoples, the people of the Chinese nation were called the Han by other ethnic groups, and the most populous ethnic group in the world, the Han, emerged. China as a united multi-ethnic country was created by the Qin Dynasty and consolidated and developed by the Han Dynasty.
汉朝以后，中国历代中央政权发展和巩固了秦汉“大一统”的多民族国家的格局。各个朝代的中央政权既有汉族建立的，也有少数民族建立的。公元十三世纪，蒙古族建立起统一的多民族的大元（1206—1368年）帝国。元朝在全国实行行省制度，在南方部分少数民族聚居的府、州设置土官（以少数民族首领充任并世袭的地方行政长官），在西藏设立主管军政事务的宣慰使司都元帅府，西藏从此成为中国领土不可分割的一部分，还设立澎湖巡检司管理澎湖列岛和台湾。元朝的民族成分包括现今中国绝大多数民族。公元十七世纪，满族崛起，建立中国历史上最后一个封建王朝——清朝（1644—1911年）。清朝在西域设立伊犁将军并建立新疆行省，在西藏设立驻藏大臣，并确立了由中央政府册封达赖、班禅两大活佛的历史定制，在西南地区实行“改土归流”（少数民族地方行政长官由中央政府委派）等一系列政策。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The central governments of all dynasties following the Han developed and consolidated the united multi-ethnic entity. The central governments of the past dynasties were established not only by the Han people but also by minority peoples. In the 13th century, the Mongolians established the united multi-ethnic Great Yuan Empire (1206-1368). The Yuan Dynasty practiced a system of xingsheng (province, or branch secretariat, a paramount administrative agency in a provincial area) across the country and appointed aboriginal officials or tu guan (hereditary posts of local administrators filled by chiefs of ethnic minorities) in the prefectures and subprefectures of the southern regions where minority peoples lived in concentrated communities. It established the Pacification Commissioner's Commandery in charge of military and administrative affairs in Tibet, whereby Tibet has became thenceforth an inalienable part of Chinese territory, as well as the Penghu Police Office for the administration of the Penghu Islands and Taiwan. Ethnically, the Yuan Empire comprised most of modern China's ethnic groups. The rise of the Manchu in the 17th century culminated in the founding of the last feudal dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). The Qing Dynasty set up the Ili Generalship and Xinjiang Province in the Western Regions, appointed resident officials in Tibet and established the historical convention of conferring honorific titles on the two Living Buddhas Dalai and Panchen lamas by the Central Government. In addition, the Qing Dynasty carried out a series of policies, including a system of local administrators in minority areas appointed by the Central Government, in southwestern China.
中国历史上虽然出现过短暂的割据局面和局部分裂，但统一始终是中国历史发展的主流③。
Although there were short-term separations and local divisions in Chinese history, unity has always been the mainstream in the development of Chinese history3.
在长期的大统一过程中，经济、文化交往把中国各民族紧密地联系在一起，从而形成了相互依存、相互促进、共同发展的关系，创造和发展了中华文明。中国各民族相互依存的政治、经济、文化联系，使其在长期的历史发展中有着共同的命运和共同的利益，产生了强固的亲和力、凝聚力。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
During the long process of unification, economic and cultural exchanges brought the people of all ethnic groups in China closely together, giving shape to a relationship of interdependence, mutual promotion and mutual development among them and contributing to the creation and development of the Chinese civilization. Due to their interdependent political, economic and cultural connections, all ethnic groups in China have shared common destiny and interests in their long historical development, creating a strong force of affinity and cohesion.
中国各民族团结合作，共同捍卫了统一的多民族国家。特别是近代以来，中国曾沦为半殖民地半封建社会，中华民族遭受帝国主义侵略、压迫和欺凌，陷入被压迫民族的境地，为捍卫国家的统一和中华民族的尊严，各民族团结奋斗，共御外侮，与侵略者和民族分裂主义者进行了不屈不挠的斗争。十九世纪，新疆各族人民协同清军消灭了阿古柏反动势力，挫败了英、俄侵略者企图分裂中国的阴谋。十九世纪末和二十世纪初，西藏军民在隆吐山、江孜两次战役中，重创英国侵略者。在中国人民反抗日本帝国主义侵略的八年抗战（1937—1945年）中，各族人民同仇敌忾，浴血奋战，其中的回民支队、内蒙古抗日游击队等许多以少数民族为主的抗日力量为抗战的胜利所作的贡献为世人熟知。针对极少数民族分裂主义者在帝国主义侵略势力的扶持下，策划和制造“西藏独立”、新疆的“东突厥斯坦”、东北的伪“满洲国”等违背历史潮流和中华民族意志的分裂国家行径，各民族人民进行了坚决的斗争，维护了国家的统一。
The unity and cooperation among the various ethnic groups have helped to safeguard China as a united multi-ethnic state. In particular in modern times, when China became a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society and the Chinese nation suffered from imperialist invasion, oppression and humiliation and was reduced to the status of an oppressed nation, in order to safeguard the unity of the state and the dignity of the Chinese nation, all the ethnic groups united and fought unyieldingly together against foreign invaders and ethnic separatists. In the 19th century, the people of all the ethnic groups in Xinjiang together with the Qing troops wiped out Yakoob Beg's reactionary forces and defeated the British and Russian invaders' plot to split China. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, Tibetan people and troops dealt a heavy blow on the British invaders at the Mount Lungthur and Gyangze battles. During the eight-year war of resistance against Japanese imperialist aggression (1937-1945), the Chinese people of all ethnic groups shared bitter hatred of the enemy and fought dauntlessly and unflinchingly. It is well known that many anti-Japanese forces with ethnic minorities as the mainstay, such as the Hui People's Detachment and the Inner Mongolia Anti-Japanese Guerrilla Contingent made great contributions to China's victory in the War of Resistance. The people of all ethnic groups fought unswervingly and succeeded in safeguarding national unity against acts aimed at splitting the country, which went counter to the historical trend and the will of the Chinese nation, including plots for the "independence of Tibet", for the setting up of an "Eastern Turkestan" in Xinjiang and the carving out of a puppet state of "Manchoukuo" in Northeast China, hatched or engineered by a few ethnic separatists with the support of imperialist invaders.
在中华人民共和国成立前，中国历代政府虽都有一套关于民族事务的政策和制度，但无论是汉族还是少数民族建立的中央政权，民族间无平等可言。1949年中华人民共和国的建立，开辟了中国各民族平等、团结、互助的新时代。在中华人民共和国统一的民族大家庭内，各民族在一切权利完全平等的基础上，自愿地联合和团结起来，相互促进，共同发展，致力于建设富强、民主、文明的新中国。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
Before the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the central governments of the various periods in China each had a sequence of policies and systems of its own concerning ethnic affairs, but under all of them, whether set up by the Han people or an ethnic minority, there was no equality to speak of among ethnic groups. The founding of the People's Republic of China opened up a new era in which all ethnic groups in China enjoy equality, unity and mutual aid. In the big, united family of ethnic groups in the People's Republic of China, on the basis of equality of all rights, the people of all ethnic groups unite of their own accord for mutual promotion and common development and dedicate to the building of a strong, prosperous, democratic and civilized New China.
二、坚持民族平等团结
II. Adherence to Equality and Unity Among Ethnic Groups
在中国，民族平等是指：各民族不论人口多少，经济社会发展程度高低，风俗习惯和宗教信仰异同，都是中华民族的一部分，具有同等的地位，在国家和社会生活的一切方面，依法享有相同的权利，履行相同的义务，反对一切形式的民族压迫和民族歧视。而民族团结是指：各民族在社会生活和交往中的和睦、友好和互助、联合的关系。民族团结要求在反对民族压迫和民族歧视的基础上，维护和促进各民族之间和民族内部的团结，各民族人民齐心协力，共同促进国家的发展繁荣，反对民族分裂，维护国家统一。中国政府历来认为，民族平等是民族团结的前提和基础，没有民族平等，就不会实现民族团结；民族团结则是民族平等的必然结果，是促进各民族真正平等的保障。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
In China, equality among ethnic groups means that, regardless of their population size, their level of economic and social development, the difference of their folkways, customs and religious beliefs, every ethnic group is a part of the Chinese nation, having equal status, enjoying the same rights and performing the same duties in every aspect of political and social life according to law, and ethnic oppression or discrimination of any form is firmly opposed. Unity among ethnic groups means a relationship of harmony, friendship, mutual assistance and alliance among ethnic groups in social life and mutual contacts. To achieve such unity, the various ethnic groups are required to, on the basis of opposition to ethnic oppression and discrimination, safeguard and promote unity among themselves and within every particular ethnic group and the people of all ethnic groups should, jointly and with one heart and one mind, promote the development and prosperity of the nation, oppose ethnic splits and safeguard the unification of the country. The Chinese government has always maintained that equality among ethnic groups is the precondition and basis for unity among ethnic groups, that the latter cannot be achieved without the former, that the latter is the logical outcome of the former and a guarantee for promoting ethnic equality in its true sense.
民族平等和民族团结作为解决民族问题的基本原则和根本政策，在中国的宪法和有关法律中得到明确规定。
Equality and unity among ethnic groups as the basic principle and policy for resolving ethnic problems have been clearly defined in the Constitution and relevant laws.
《中华人民共和国宪法》规定：“中华人民共和国各民族一律平等。国家保障各少数民族的合法权利和利益，维护和发展各民族的平等、团结、互助关系。禁止对任何民族的歧视和压迫”。中国各民族公民广泛地享有宪法和法律赋予公民的各项平等权利。诸如：各民族公民不分民族、种族、宗教信仰，都同样地享有选举权和被选举权；各民族公民的人身自由和人格尊严不受侵犯；各民族公民都有宗教信仰自由的权利；各民族公民都有接受教育的权利；各民族公民都有使用和发展本民族语言文字的权利；各民族公民都有言论、出版、集会、结社、游行、示威的自由；各民族公民都有从事科学研究、文学艺术创作和其他文化活动的权利；各民族公民都有劳动、休息和丧失劳动能力时从国家和社会获得物质帮助的权利；各民族公民都有对国家机关和国家工作人员提出批评和建议的权利；各民族公民都有保持或改革自己风俗习惯的自由等等④。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The Constitution of the People's Republic of China stipulates: ``All ethnic groups in the People's Republic of China are equal. The state protects the lawful rights and interests of the ethnic minorities and upholds and develops a relationship of equality, unity and mutual assistance among all of China's ethnic groups. Discrimination against and oppression of any ethnic group are prohibited.'' Citizens of all ethnic groups in China enjoy all equal rights accorded to citizens by the Constitution and law. For instance, they have the rights to vote and stand for election, regardless of ethnic status, race and religious belief; their personal freedom and dignity are inviolable; they enjoy freedom of religious belief; they have the right to receive education; they have the right to use and develop their own spoken and written languages; they enjoy freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, of association, of procession and of demonstration; they have the right to engage in scientific research, literary and artistic creation and other cultural pursuits; they have the right to work and rest, and the right to material assistance from the state and society when they are disabled; they have the right to criticize and make suggestions regarding any state organ or functionary; and they have the freedom to preserve or change their own folkways and customs4.
中国政府采取了特殊的政策和措施，努力使宪法和法律规定的各民族一律平等的权利在社会生活和政府行为中得到有效落实和保障，形成了各民族平等相待、团结和睦、友好互助的良好社会环境。
The Chinese government has adopted special policies and measures to effectively realize and guarantee the right to equality among all ethnic groups, which is prescribed by the Constitution and law, in social life and government activities. As a result, a favorable social environment has been created for ethnic groups to treat each other on an equal footing and to develop a relationship of unity, harmony, friendship and mutual assistance among them.
保护少数民族人身自由
Protection of the Personal Freedom of Ethnic Minorities
中华人民共和国成立前，中国少数民族地区经济社会发展很不平衡，有的处于封建农奴制社会，有的处于奴隶制社会，有的还处于原始社会末期。这些地区的少数民族群众大都附属于封建领主、大贵族、寺庙或奴隶主，可以被任意买卖或当作礼物赠送，没有人身自由⑤。在西藏，形成于十七世纪并沿用了300多年的法律——《十三法典》、《十六法典》，将人严格划分为三等九级：“上等人”是大贵族、大活佛和高级官员，“中等人”为一般僧俗官员、下级军官和上等人的管家等，“下等人”是农奴和奴隶。“法典”规定：“上等上级人”的命价按尸量黄金计，“下等下级人”的命价仅为一根草绳，而“下等人”占西藏总人口的95％以上⑥。不改革少数民族地区落后的社会政治制度，宪法和法律规定的少数民族的各项平等权利就无法实现。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
Before the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the economic and social development of the areas inhabited by ethnic minorities was unbalanced; some areas were in society under the serf system, some under the slave system and some even in the later period of the primitive system. The mass of the minority people in these areas were vassals of big feudal lords, nobles, temples or slave owners; they had no personal freedom and could be sold or bought or given as gifts by their owners at will5. In Tibet the Thirteen-Point Law and Sixteen-Point Law formulated in the 17th century and used for more than 300 years, divided the people strictly into three classes and nine grades: the people of the upper class were big nobles, Grand Living Buddhas and high officials, the people of the intermediate class were ordinary clerical and secular officials, junior officers and stewards of upper class people, and the people of the lower class were serfs and slaves. According to these Laws the value of the life of a top-grade person of the upper class was measured by the weight of his body in gold, while the life of a lowest-grade person of the lower class was as cheap as a straw rope. However, the people of the lower class exceeded 95 percent of the total population of Tibet6. It is obvious that without the reform of the backward social and political system in minority areas the various equal rights of minority peoples stipulated in the Constitution and the law could not be realized.
中华人民共和国成立后，根据大多数少数民族地区人民的意愿，中国政府采取不同方法先后在少数民族地区逐步实行民主改革，并在五十年代末完成。这场改革废除了领主、贵族、头人等特权者的一切特权，消灭了人剥削人、人压迫人的旧制度，使千百万少数民族群众翻身解放，获得人身自由，成为国家和自己命运的主人。1959年在西藏进行的民主改革，彻底废除了长达700多年的政教合一、贵族僧侣专权的封建农奴制度，昔日百万农奴和奴隶获得了人身自由，成了新社会的主人。
After the founding of the People's Republic of China, the Chinese government adopted different measures to institute democratic reform successively in the minority areas at the will of the minority of the people in these areas, and completed the reform in the late 1950s. This reform abolished all the privileges of the privileged few--feudal lords, nobles and tribal chiefs--and the old system of exploitation and oppression of man by man. As a result, tens of thousands of the minority people won emancipation and personal freedom and became masters of their homelands and their own destinies. The democratic reform which took place in Tibet in 1959 eradicated the feudal serf system marked by the combination of government and religion and the dictatorship of nobles and monks, thus tens of thousands of serfs and slaves under the old system got their personal freedom and became masters of the new society.
各民族平等参与国家事务的管理
All Ethnic Groups Participate in State Affairs Administration on an Equal Footing
在中国，各少数民族与汉族都以平等的地位参与国家大事和各级地方事务的管理，而且少数民族参与行使管理国家的权利受到特殊保障。在中国的最高权力机关全国人民代表大会的选举中，充分反映了对少数民族权利的尊重。中国各少数民族都依据《中华人民共和国全国人民代表大会和地方各级人民代表大会选举法》的规定，选出代表本民族的全国人民代表大会代表，人口特别少的民族，即使达不到规定的产生一名代表的人数，至少也有一名代表。从1954年第一届全国人民代表大会至今，历届全国人民代表大会中，少数民族代表在全国人民代表大会代表中所占名额的比例，均高于同期在全国人口中所占的比例。1998年选出的第九届全国人民代表大会代表中，少数民族代表共有428人，占代表总数2979人的14．37％，比同期少数民族人口占全国总人口的比例约高出5个百分点。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
In China, the minority and Han peoples participate as equals in the management of affairs of the state and local governments at various levels, and the rights of the minority ethnic groups to take part in the management of state affairs are especially guaranteed. Elections to the National People's Congress(NPC)--the highest organ of state power--fully reflect respect for the rights of ethnic minorities. In accordance with the provisions of the Electoral Law of the National People's Congress and Local People's Congresses of the People's Republic of China, the minority peoples shall have their own deputies to sit in the NPC, and the ethnic groups whose population is less than that prescribed for electing one deputy are permitted to elect one deputy. From the first session of the First NPC, held in 1954, to the present day, the proportions of deputies of ethnic minorities among the total number of deputies in every NPC have been higher than the proportions of their populations in the nation's total population in the corresponding periods. Of 2,979 deputies elected in 1998 to the Ninth NPC, 428 deputies were from ethnic minority, accounting for 14.37 percent of the total, which was about five percentage points higher than the proportion of their total population in the nation's total population at that time.
在地方各级人民代表大会中，少数民族聚居的地方，每一聚居的少数民族都有代表参加当地的人民代表大会。散居的少数民族也参加选举代表本民族的当地人民代表大会的代表，而且每一代表所代表的人口数可以少于当地人民代表大会每一代表所代表的人口数。
In areas where ethnic minorities live in concentrated communities, each of them may have its own deputy or deputies sit in the local people's congresses. Ethnic minorities living in scattered groups may also elect their own deputies to the local people's congresses and the number of people represented by each of their deputies may be less than the number of people represented by each of the other deputies to such congresses.
国家大力培养使用少数民族干部，全国现有少数民族干部270多万人。在中央和地方国家权力机关、行政机关、审判机关和检察机关都有相当数量的少数民族人员，参加国家和地方事务的管理。目前，在中国全国人民代表大会常务委员会副委员长中，少数民族占21％，在全国政协副主席中，少数民族占9．6％；在国务院领导成员中，有一人为少数民族；在国务院的组成部门中，有两位部长是少数民族；155个民族自治地方政府的主席、州长、县长或旗长都由少数民族人员担任。
The state has made great efforts to train ethnic minority cadres and enlist their service. To date, there are well over 2,700,000 minority cadres throughout the country. The ethnic minorities also have a fairly large appropriate number of personnel working in the central and local state organs, administrative organs, judicial organs and procuratorial organs, taking part in the management of national and local affairs. Today, among the vice-chairpersons of the Standing Committee of the NPC, those of ethnic minority origin account for 21 percent; among the vice-chairpersons of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), those of ethnic minority origin account for 9.6 percent; of the leading members of the State Council, one is of ethnic minority origin; among the leaders of the component departments of the State Council, two ministers are from ethnic minority groups; and the heads of the governments of the 155 ethnic autonomous regions, prefectures and counties (or banners) are all from ethnic minority groups.
确认少数民族成分
Identification of Ethnic Minorities
在中华人民共和国成立以前，中国究竟有多少少数民族，并不清楚。中华人民共和国成立后，为了全面贯彻实行民族平等政策，从1953年起，国家组织了大规模的民族识别考察工作，辨别民族成分和民族名称。识别考察从中国的历史和现实情况出发，按照科学认定与本民族意愿相结合的原则，只要具有构成单一民族条件的，不管其社会发展水平如何，不论其居住区域大小和人口多少，都认定为一个民族。经过认真的调查研究，到1954年，中国政府确认了38个民族；到1964年，中国政府又确认了15个民族。加上1965年确认的珞巴族、1979年确认的基诺族，全国55个少数民族都被正式确认并公布。新中国的民族识别工作使许多不被旧中国的统治者承认的少数民族获得了应有的承认，并与中国其他民族一样享有平等权利。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
Before the founding of the People's Republic of China, it had never been made clear how many ethnic minorities there were in China. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, to implement the policy of equality among ethnic groups in an all-round way the state has organized large-scale investigations since 1953 to identify the ethnic groups. Proceeding from conditions both past and present and in accordance with the principle of combination of scientific identification and the wishes of the given ethnic group, every group which accords with the conditions for an ethnic group is identified as a single ethnic group, regardless of its level of social development and the sizes of its inhabited area and population. By 1954, the Chinese government had identified 38 ethnic groups in all, after careful investigation and study. By 1964, the Chinese government had identified another 15 ethnic groups. With the addition of the Lhoba ethnic group, identified in 1965, and the Jino ethnic group, identified in 1979, there are 55 ethnic minority groups which have been formally recognized and made known to the public. Now, in New China many ethnic minority groups which had not been recognized by the rulers of old China have been recognized as they should, and they all enjoy equal rights with other ethnic groups in China.
反对任何形式的民族歧视和压迫
Opposing Ethnic Discrimination or Oppression of Any Form
旧中国在民族歧视和民族压迫制度下，许多少数民族没有平等的、准确的称谓，有些少数民族地区的地名也带有民族歧视和压迫的含义。中华人民共和国成立以后，中央人民政府采取措施，于1951年发布了《关于处理带有歧视或侮辱少数民族性质的称谓、地名、碑碣、匾联的指示》，废除了带有侮辱性的称谓、地名等。有的少数民族称谓虽然没有侮辱性的含义，也根据少数民族自己的意愿进行了更改，如僮族的“僮”改为“壮”等。
Under the system of ethnic discrimination and oppression in old China, many ethnic minorities did not have proper names or names given in the spirit of equality. The names of certain minority-inhabited areas even carried the implications of ethnic discrimination or oppression. In 1951 the Central People's Government promulgated the Directive on Dealing with the Appellations, Place Names, Monuments, Tablets and Inscriptions Bearing Contents Discriminating Against or Insulting Ethnic Minorities, and such names, appellations, etc. were resolutely abolished. Some ethnic appellations not implying insults were also changed at the wish of the given ethnic group, for instance, the appellation of the Tong ethnic group was changed to Zhuang.
在中国，任何煽动民族仇视和歧视，破坏民族平等团结的言行都是违法的。少数民族如遭受歧视、压迫或侮辱，有向司法机关控告的权利，司法机关对此种控告必须负责予以处理。
In China any words or acts aimed at inciting hostility and discrimination against any ethnic group and sabotaging equality and unity among peoples are regarded as violating the law. Any ethnic minority subjected to discrimination, oppression or insult, has the right to complain to judicial institutions at any level, which have the duty of handling the complaint.
中国加入了《消除一切形式种族歧视国际公约》、《禁止并惩治种族隔离罪行国际公约》、《防止和惩治灭绝种族罪行公约》等国际公约，并认真履行国际公约的义务，同国际社会一起，为在世界各国实行民族平等，反对种族隔离、民族压迫和民族歧视进行不懈的努力。
China has joined international conventions such as The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid, and Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, and has conscientiously performed the duties prescribed in these conventions and made unremitting efforts together with the international community to realize ethnic equality and oppose racial segregation and ethnic oppression and discrimination in all countries of the world.
维护和促进各民族大团结
Upholding and Promoting the Unity of All Ethnic Groups
为保障民族平等，加强民族团结，中国宪法规定：要反对大民族主义，主要是大汉族主义，也要反对地方民族主义。同时，国家还在全体公民中广泛开展各民族大团结的宣传和教育。在文艺作品、影视作品、新闻报道、学术研究中都大力倡导民族平等、民族团结，反对民族压迫和民族歧视，特别是反对大民族主义。为防止和杜绝意识形态领域的大民族主义和不平等现象的出现，中国政府有关部门、机构专门就严禁在新闻出版和文艺作品中出现损害民族团结内容等事项作出了规定。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
To safeguard equality among ethnic groups and enhance their unity, the Constitution contains provisions on the need to combat big-ethnic group chauvinism, mainly Han chauvinism, and local ethnic chauvinism. The state also educates all citizens in the unity of all ethnic groups. In literary and art works, films and televisions programs, news reports and academic research, China vigorously advocates the equality and unity of ethnic groups, and opposes ethnic oppression and discrimination, and especially big-ethnic group chauvinism. Besides, to prevent and eliminate big-ethnic-group chauvinism and inequality in the ideological field, the relevant departments and organs of the Chinese government have worked out special provisions to strictly prohibit contents damaging ethnic unity in the media, publications, and literary and art works.
自八十年代以来，中国政府及有关部门多次举行民族团结进步表彰活动，对维护各民族平等权利、促进各民族和睦相处和共同进步繁荣的单位和个人给予表彰和奖励。1988年，中国政府在全国广泛深入开展民族团结进步活动的基础上，召开了第一次全国民族团结进步表彰大会，有565个先进集体、601名先进个人受到表彰。1994年，中国政府又召开了第二次全国民族团结进步表彰大会，1200多个模范单位和个人受到表彰。1999年，中国政府还将在北京召开第三次全国民族团结进步表彰大会。通过开展民族团结进步表彰活动，激励先进，弘扬正气，使民族团结成为强大的社会舆论和良好的社会风尚，不仅推动了民族团结进步事业的发展，而且对维护少数民族地区和整个国家的稳定也产生了深远影响。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
Since the 1980s, the Chinese government and the relevant departments have held meetings to commend ethnic unity and progress, at which those units and individuals who uphold the equal rights of ethnic groups and promote harmonious coexistence and common progress and prosperity of ethnic groups are praised and encouraged. Following the launching of a nationwide in-depth movement for the unity and progress of ethnic groups, in 1988 the Chinese government held the first national meeting to commend and give awards to units and individuals distinguished in this regard, at which the commendation involved 565 advanced collectives and 601 advanced individuals. At the second national meeting, held in 1994, a total of 1,200 model units and individuals were cited, and the third national meeting is scheduled to be held in Beijing in 1999. The holding of this kind of meetings has gone a long way toward inspiring the advanced, encouraging healthy trends and making ethnic unity become a powerful part of public opinion and a fine moral conduct in society. It has not only pushed forward the cause for unity and progress among ethnic groups, but it has also exerted a far-reaching influence on the maintenance of stability in ethnic minority areas and the nation at large.
尊重和保护少数民族宗教信仰自由
Respecting and Protecting the Freedom of Religious Belief of Ethnic Minorities
中国是一个有着多种宗教的国家，主要有佛教、道教、伊斯兰教、天主教、基督教等。中国少数民族群众大多有宗教信仰，有的民族群众性地信仰某种宗教，如藏族群众信仰藏传佛教。中国政府根据《中华人民共和国宪法》关于公民有宗教信仰自由的规定，制定了具体政策，尊重和保护少数民族的宗教信仰自由，保障少数民族公民一切正常的宗教活动。在中国，不论是信仰藏传佛教的藏、蒙古、土、裕固、门巴等民族的群众，还是信仰伊斯兰教的回、维吾尔、哈萨克、东乡、撒拉、保安、柯尔克孜、塔吉克、乌孜别克、塔塔尔等民族的群众，以及部分信仰基督教的苗、瑶等民族的群众，他们正常的宗教活动都受到法律的保护。目前，中国有清真寺3万余座。在新疆有清真寺2．3万座。在西藏，有藏传佛教各类宗教活动场所1700多处。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
China is home to many religions, mainly Buddhism, Taoism, Islam and Christianity. Most people belonging to ethnic minorities in China hold religious beliefs. In the case of certain ethnic groups religions are followed on a mass scale, for instance the Tibetans have Tibetan Buddhism as their traditional religion. In accordance with the Constitution's provisions on freedom of religious belief of citizens, the Chinese government has formulated specific policies to ensure respect for and safeguard freedom of religious belief for ethnic minorities and guarantee all normal religious activities of ethnic minorities citizens. In China, all normal religious activities, such as those of Tibetan Buddhism, which is followed by the Tibetan, Mongolian, Tu, Yugur and Moinba ethnic groups, Islam, followed by the Hui, Uygur, Kazak, Dongxiang, Salar, Bonan, Kirgiz, Tajik, Ozbek and Tatar ethnic groups, and Christianity, followed by some people of the Miao and Yao ethnic groups, are all protected by law. To date, there are more than 30,000 mosques in China, of which 23,000 are in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. In Tibet there are over 1,700 places for Tibetan-Buddhism activities.
使用和发展少数民族语言文字
Use and Development of Spoken and Written Languages of Ethnic Minorities
中国各民族都有使用和发展自己语言文字的自由和权利。国家在五十年代组织人员对少数民族语言文字情况进行了全面调查，建立专门的民族语文工作机构和研究机构，培养民族语文专门人才，帮助少数民族创制、改进或改革文字，推进少数民族语文在各个领域中的运用。
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All ethnic groups in China have the freedom and right to use and develop their own spoken and written languages. In the 1950s, China organized specialists to make investigations of the spoken and written languages of ethnic minorities, and established special organizations involved in work connected with the spoken and written languages of ethnic minorities as well as institutions to research these languages, to train specialists in these languages, help minority people create, improve or reform their written languages, and promote the use of spoken and written languages of ethnic minorities in every field.
目前，中国55个少数民族中，除回族和满族通用汉语文外，其余53个民族都有自己的民族语言。有文字的民族有21个，共使用27种文字，其中壮、布依、苗、纳西、傈僳、哈尼、佤、侗、景颇（载佤文系）、土等十多个民族使用的13种文字是由政府帮助创制或改进的。
Now, all the 55 national minorities, except the Hui and Manchu, who use the Chinese language, have their own languages: among them 21 use 27 languages, and more than ten ethnic goups, including the Zhuang, Bouyei, Miao, Naxi, Lisu, Hani, Va, Dong, Jingpo (Zaiva language family) and Tu, use 13 languages which have been created or improved with the help of the government.
在中国，无论在司法、行政、教育等领域，还是在国家政治和社会生活中，少数民族语言文字都得到广泛使用。在国家政治生活中，全国人民代表大会、中国人民政治协商会议召开的重要会议和全国或地区性重大活动，都提供蒙古、藏、维吾尔、哈萨克、朝鲜、彝、壮等民族语言文字的文件或语言翻译。民族自治地方的自治机关在执行职务的时候，都使用当地通用的一种或几种文字。在教育领域，各民族自治地方的自治机关根据国家的教育方针，依照法律规定，决定本地方的教育规划和各级各类学校的教学用语。少数民族为主的学校及其他教育机构，使用本民族或者当地通用的语言文字进行教学。在新闻、出版、广播、影视等领域，目前中国用17种少数民族文字出版近百种报纸，用11种少数民族文字出版73种杂志。中央人民广播电台和地方台用16种少数民族语言进行广播，地、州、县电台或广播站使用当地语言广播的达20多种。用少数民族语言摄制的故事片达3410部（集）、译制各类影片达10430部（集）。到1998年，全国36家民族类出版社用23种民族文字出版各类图书4100多种，印数达5300多万册。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The spoken and written languages of national minorities are widely used in judicial, administrative and educational fields, as well as in political activities and social life. In the political activities of the state, such as important meetings held by the NPC and the CPPCC, and national and local important activities, documents in Mongolian, Tibetan, Uygur, Kazak, Korean, Yi, Zhuang and other ethnic minorities, and language interpretation to or from these languages are provided. The organs of self-government in ethnic autonomous areas all use one or more languages of their areas when they perform their duties. In the educational field the organs of self-government, in accordance with the educational principles of the state and the law, work out their local educational programs and decide on the languages to be used in teaching in the local schools. In schools with minority students as the main body and other educational institutions the languages of the ethnic groups concerned or languages commonly used in the locality are used in teaching. China publishes about 100 newspapers in 17 minority languages and 73 periodicals in 11 minority languages. The Central People's Broadcasting Station and local broadcasting stations use 16 minority languages, and regional, prefectural and county broadcasting stations or rediffusion stations use more than 20. As many as 3,410 feature films have been produced and 10,430 films dubbed in minority languages. By 1998, 36 publishing houses specializing in publishing for national minorities had published more than 53 million copies of 4,100-odd titles of books in 23 minority languages.
三、实行民族区域自治制度
III. Regional Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities
在中国，民族区域自治制度是中国政府结合中国实际情况采取的一项基本政策，也是中国的一项重要政治制度。中国的民族区域自治是在国家的统一领导下，各少数民族聚居的地方实行区域自治，设立自治机关，行使自治权，使少数民族人民当家作主，自己管理本自治地方的内部事务。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
In China regional autonomy for ethnic minorities is a basic policy adopted by the Chinese government in line with the actual conditions of China, and also an important part of the political system of China. Regional autonomy for ethnic minorities means that under the unified leadership of the state regional autonomy is practiced in areas where people of ethnic minorities live in concentrated communities; in these areas organs of self-government are established for the exercise of autonomy and for people of ethnic minorities to become masters of their own areas and manage the internal affairs of their own regions.
中国的民族自治地方分为自治区、自治州、自治县（旗）三级。民族自治地方的建立有以下类型：（一）以一个少数民族聚居区为主建立的自治地方，如新疆维吾尔自治区等；（二）以两个少数民族聚居区联合建立的自治地方，如青海省海西蒙古族藏族自治州等；（三）以多个少数民族聚居区联合建立的自治地方，如广西龙胜各族自治县等；（四）在一个大的少数民族自治地方内，人口较少的少数民族聚居区建立自治地方，如广西壮族自治区的恭城瑶族自治县等；（五）一个民族在多处有聚居区的，建立多个自治地方，如宁夏回族自治区、甘肃省临夏回族自治州、河北省大厂回族自治县等。对于有些少数民族聚居地区，因地域太小、人口太少，不宜建立自治地方和设立自治机关的，中国政府通过在这些地区设立民族乡的办法，使这些地区的少数民族也能行使当家作主的权利。民族乡是对民族区域自治制度的一种补充。
Autonomous areas for ethnic minorities in China include autonomous regions, autonomous prefectures and autonomous counties (banners). 1) Autonomous areas are established where people of one ethnic minority live in concentrated communities, such as the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region; 2) autonomous areas are established where two ethnic minorities live in concentrated communities, such as the Haixi Mongolian-Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Qinghai Province; 3) autonomous areas are established where several ethnic minorities live in concentrated communities, such as the Longsheng Ethnic Minorities Autonomous County in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region; 4) autonomous areas are established within a larger autonomous area where people of an ethnic minority with a smaller population live in concentrated communities, such as the Gongcheng Yao Autonomous County in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region; 5) autonomous areas are established for people of one ethnic minority who live in concentrated communities in different places, such as the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, the Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture in Gansu Province and the Dachang Hui Autonomous County in Hebei Province. For places where ethnic minorities live in concentrated communities but where autonomous areas and organs of self-government are not fit to be established because the areas and populations of the ethnic minorities are too small, ethnic townships are established so that the minority peoples there can also exercise their rights as masters of their homelands. Ethnic townships are a supplement to the system of regional autonomy.
截止到1998年底，中国共建立了155个民族自治地方，其中自治区5个、自治州30个、自治县（旗）120个，还有1256个民族乡。在全国55个少数民族中，有44个民族建立了自治地方。实行自治的少数民族人口占少数民族人口总数的75%，民族自治地方行政区域的面积占全国总面积的64%。自治地方的数量和布局，与中国的民族分布和构成基本上相适应⑦。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
By the end of 1998, five autonomous regions, 30 autonomous prefectures and 120 autonomous counties (banners) had been established, as well as 1,256 ethnic townships. Among the 55 ethnic minorities, 44 have their own autonomous areas, with a population of 75 percent of the total of the ethnic minorities and an area of 64 percent of the area of the whole country. The number and distribution of the autonomous areas are basically the same as the distribution and composition of the ethnic groups nationwide7.
中国所以实行民族区域自治制度，主要基于以下三个因素：一是中国在历史上长期就是一个集中统一的国家，实行民族区域自治制度符合中国的国情和历史传统。二是长期以来中国的民族分布以大杂居、小聚居为主。从各民族的人口构成来看，汉族一直占全国人口的绝大多数，少数民族的人口占少数。中华人民共和国成立初期，少数民族总人口仅占全国总人口的6%。除西藏、新疆等个别地区外，大多数民族地区的少数民族人口比汉族都要少。少数民族人口虽然少，但分布区域很广，超过中国陆地面积的一半以上。长期的经济文化联系，形成了各民族只适宜于合作互助，而不适宜于分离的民族关系。三是自1840年鸦片战争以来，中国各民族都面临着反帝反封建、为民族解放而奋斗的共同任务和命运。在共御外敌、争取民族独立和解放的长期革命斗争中，中国各民族建立了休戚与共的亲密关系，形成了汉族离不开少数民族、少数民族离不开汉族、少数民族之间也相互离不开的政治认同。这就为建立一个统一的新中国，并在少数民族地区实行民族区域自治奠定了坚实的政治和社会基础。
The following are the three reasons for China to practice the system of regional autonomy for ethnic minorities: First, it conforms to the conditions and historical traditions of China, because China has been centralized and united country over a long period of time. Second, over a long period of time China's ethnic groups have lived together over vast areas while some live in individual concentrated communities in small areas. The Han population accounts for the majority of the total population of the country, while the populations of ethnic minorities are in the minority. In the early period of the People's Republic of China, ethnic minorities only accounted for six percent of China's total population. In most multi-ethnic group areas the population of the national minorities is less than that of the Han people except in Tibet, Xinjiang and a few other regions. The national minorities are distributed over large areas, in more than half of the total territory of China. Economic and cultural contacts over long periods have evolved among them a relationship in which cooperation and mutual assistance, rather than separation, is the best choice for them. Third, following the outbreak of the Opium War in 1840, all the ethnic groups of China were faced with the common task and destiny of struggling against imperialism and feudalism and striving for national liberation. In the long-term revolutionary struggle against foreign enemies and for national independence and liberation, the various ethnic groups have developed a close interrelationship characterized by the sharing of weal and woe, and the common political understanding that the Han people cannot go without the minority peoples nor can the minority peoples go without the Han people or one minority people can go without another minority people. So a solid political and social foundation for the establishment of a united New China and the practice of regional autonomy in minority areas was laid in that period.
民族区域自治是与中国的国家利益和各民族人民的根本利益相一致的。实行民族区域自治，保障了少数民族在政治上的平等地位和平等权利，极大地满足了各少数民族积极参与国家政治生活的愿望。根据民族区域自治的原则，一个民族可以在本民族聚居的地区内单独建立一个自治地方，也可以根据它分布的情况在全国其他地方建立不同行政单位的多个民族自治地方；实行民族区域自治，既保障了少数民族当家作主的自治权利，又维护了国家的统一；实行民族区域自治，有利于把国家的方针、政策和少数民族地区的具体实际结合起来，有利于把国家的发展和少数民族的发展结合起来，发挥各方面的优势。
Regional autonomy for ethnic minorities conforms with the national interests and the fundamental interests of the people of all ethnic groups in China. The practice of regional autonomy for ethnic minorities has ensured their equal footing and equal rights politically and satisfied the desire of all the ethnic minorities to take an active part in nation's political activities to a large extent. According to the principle of regional autonomy for ethnic minorities, an ethnic group may establish an autonomous area in a region where it lives in concentrated communities, or it may establish several autonomous areas at different administrative levels in other parts of the country in line with the distribution of the ethnic group. The practice of regional autonomy not only ensures the rights of the ethnic minorities to exercise autonomy as masters of their homelands, but also upholds the unification of the state. It enhances the combination of state policies and principles and the concrete conditions of the ethnic minority areas and the integrated development of the state and the ethnic minorities, the better for each to give free rein to its own advantages.
中国的民族区域自治制度有如下两个显著的特色：一是中国的民族区域自治，是在国家统一领导下的自治，各民族自治地方都是中国不可分离的部分，各民族自治地方的自治机关都是中央政府领导下的一级地方政权，都必须服从中央集中统一的领导。上级国家机关在制定各项政策和计划、进行国家经济文化建设时，必须充分考虑各民族地区的具体情况和需要，动员各方面的力量予以帮助和支持。二是中国的民族区域自治，不只是单纯的民族自治或地方自治，而是民族因素与区域因素的结合，是政治因素和经济因素的结合。在中国，实行民族区域自治，既要有利于国家统一、社会稳定和民族团结，又要有利于实行自治的民族的发展和进步，有利于国家的建设。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The system of regional autonomy in China has two distinguishing features. First, regional autonomy is under the unified leadership of the state, and the autonomous areas are inseparable parts of China. The organs of self-government of the autonomous areas are local governments under the leadership of the Central Government, and they must be subordinated to the centralized and unified leadership of the Central Government. The concrete conditions and requirements of the various minority areas must be taken into full consideration and assistance and support solicited from all quarters when policies and plans are formulated and economic and cultural construction is conducted by the organs of state at higher levels. Second, regional autonomy for ethnic minorities in China is not only ethnic autonomy or local autonomy, but is the integration of ethnic and regional factors and the combination of political and economic factors. The practice of regional autonomy in China should be beneficial to the unification of the country, social stability and the unity of all ethnic groups; it should also benefit the development and progress of the ethnic group that practices autonomy and assist in national construction.
中国民族区域自治制度的确立经历了长时间的探索和实践。1947年，在中国共产党领导下，中国建立第一个省级少数民族自治地方——内蒙古自治区。1949年9月29日第一届中国人民政治协商会议通过的具有临时宪法作用的《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》，将民族区域自治制度确定为国家的一项基本政策和重要政治制度之一。1952年8月8日颁布的《中华人民共和国民族区域自治实施纲要》，对民族区域自治制度的实施，作了全面规定。在1954年制定及以后修正颁布的《中华人民共和国宪法》中，都将民族区域自治作为国家的一项重要政治制度加以规定。1984年颁布的《中华人民共和国民族区域自治法》，对少数民族自治地方的政治、经济、文化等各方面的权利和义务作了系统的规定。中华人民共和国建立后相继成立了四个自治区：1955年10月，新疆维吾尔自治区成立；1958年3月，广西壮族自治区成立；1958年10月，宁夏回族自治区成立；1965年9月，西藏自治区成立。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The establishment of the system of regional autonomy for ethnic minorities has undergone long period of exploration and practice. Under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party, the first provincial-level autonomous region--the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region-- was founded in 1947. The Common Program of the CPPCC, adopted at the first CPPCC session on September 29, 1949 and serving as the country's provisional constitution, defined regional autonomy for ethnic minorities as a basic policy and one of the important political systems of the state. The Program for the Implementation of Ethnic Regional Autonomy of the People's Republic of China, issued on August 8, 1952, embodied overall arrangements for the implementation of regional autonomy for national minorities. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China adopted in 1954 and later amended and promulgated defines such autonomy as an important political system of state. The Law of the People's Republic of China on Ethnic Regional Autonomy, promulgated in 1984, contains systematic provisions on the political, economic and cultural rights and duties of ethnic minority autonomous areas. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, four autonomous regions were established successively: the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, founded in October 1955; the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, founded in March 1958; the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, founded in October 1958; and the Tibet Autonomous Region, founded in September 1965.
《中华人民共和国宪法》规定，民族自治地方的自治机关是自治区、自治州、自治县的人民代表大会和人民政府。民族自治地方的自治机关，其建立和组织均依据人民代表大会制度的基本原则，但又有别于一般地方国家机关。《中华人民共和国民族区域自治法》规定：民族自治地方的各民族都应有适当名额的代表参加各级人民代表大会；民族自治地方的人大常委会中应当有实行区域自治的民族的公民担任主任或副主任；自治区主席、自治州州长、自治县县长由实行区域自治的民族的公民担任，自治区、自治州、自治县人民政府的其他组成人员要尽量配备实行区域自治的民族和其他少数民族的人员。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The Constitution stipulates that the organs of self-government of autonomous areas are the people's congresses and people's governments of autonomous regions, autonomous prefectures and autonomous counties. The establishment and organization of organs of self-government of autonomous areas are based on the basic principles of the people's congress system, but these organs are different from ordinary local state organs. The Law on Ethnic Regional Autonomy stipulates that all ethnic groups in autonomous areas shall elect an appropriate number of deputies to take part in the people's congresses at various levels; among the chairman or vice-chairmen of the standing committee of the people's congress of an autonomous area there shall be one or more citizens of the ethnic group or groups exercising regional autonomy in the area concerned; the head of an autonomous region, autonomous prefecture or autonomous county shall be a citizen of the ethnic group exercising regional autonomy in the area concerned, and the other members of the people's governments of these regions, prefectures and counties shall include members of the ethnic group exercising regional autonomy as well as members of other ethnic minorities as far as possible.
民族自治地方的自治机关在行使地方国家机关职权的同时，依据宪法和民族区域自治法的规定，还行使立法权，变通执行或者停止执行权，经济发展权，财政权，少数民族干部培养使用权，发展教育和民族文化权，语言文字使用和发展权，以及科技文化发展权等。
While exercising the functions and powers of a local organ of state, organs of self-government in autonomous areas at the same time exercise other functions and powers as stipulated by the Constitution and the Law on Ethnic Regional Autonomy. These include legislative power, the power to flexibly carry out, or halt the carrying out of, some decisions, the right to develop their economics and control the local finances, the power to train and employ cadres belonging to ethnic minorities, the power to develop education and ethnic culture, the power to develop and employ the local spoken and written languages, and the power to develop technological, scientific and cultural and undertakings.
——民族自治地方的人民代表大会有权依照当地政治、经济和文化的特点，制定自治条例和单行条例。截至1998年底，民族自治地方共制定自治条例126个，单行条例209个。
--The people's congresses of the autonomous areas have the right to enact regulations on the exercise of autonomy and separate regulations in light of local political, economic and cultural characteristics. By the end of 1998, 126 regulations on the exercise of autonomy and 209 separate regulations had been enacted by the autonomous areas.
——民族自治地方的自治机关对上级国家机关的决议、决定、命令和指示，有不适合民族自治地方实际情况的，可在报经上级机关批准后，变通执行或者停止执行。根据《中华人民共和国婚姻法》第三十六条的规定，中国五个民族自治区和一些自治州结合当地的具体情况，制定了执行《中华人民共和国婚姻法》的补充规定，将婚姻法中关于公民的法定婚龄“男不得早于22周岁，女不得早于20周岁”的规定，修改为“男不得早于20周岁，女不得早于18周岁”。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
--If resolutions, decisions, orders and instructions from the higher-level state organs are not suited to the actual conditions of the autonomous areas, the organs of self-government of these areas may be flexible in carrying them out or may decide not to carry them out after approval by the higher state organs. According to Article 36 of the Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China, supplementary regulations have been worked out for carrying out the Marriage Law by the five autonomous regions and some autonomous prefectures in line with their own actual conditions. They changed the legal marriage age from "not below 22" to "not below 20 for men" and from "not below 20" to "not below 18 for women".
——民族自治地方的自治机关在国家计划的指导下，自主地安排和管理地方性的经济建设事业，根据本地方的特点和需要，制定经济建设的方针、政策和计划。内蒙古自治区根据本地区的实际情况，制定并实施了一系列适合当地经济发展的政策和措施，使本地区经济得到了较快发展。1998年，全区国内生产总值达1192．02亿元，人均国内生产总值5067元，财政收入达131．2亿元，城乡居民人均收入分别达4353元和1981元，这几项指标分别比1997年增长9．6%、7．5%、17．9%、10．4%、11．3%⑧。
--Organs of self-government of autonomous areas may independently arrange and manage local economic construction within the guidance of state planning, and formulate policies, principles and plans for their economic construction according to their local characteristics and requirements. Owing to the adoption of a series of policies and measures suitable for the concrete conditions of local economic development, the economy of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region has seen rapid development. In 1998, its GDP had reached 119.202 billion yuan, with a per capita average GDP of 5,067 yuan, and its revenue was 13.12 billion yuan, with per capita average incomes of 4,353 yuan and 1,981 yuan in urban and rural areas, respectively--increases of 9.6 , 7.5, 17.9, 10.4 and 11.3 percent8.
——民族自治地方的自治机关根据国家建设的需要，采取各种措施从当地民族中大量培养各级干部、各种科学技术、经营管理等专业人才和技术工人，充分发挥他们的作用。到1998年，广西壮族自治区共有各类少数民族干部37．29万人，占全区干部总数的35％。全区12个民族自治县的政府主要领导都由实行区域自治的民族干部担任，62个民族乡的乡长也由建乡的少数民族公民担任；全区地（市）、县、乡各级党政领导干部中，少数民族干部分别达到26．92%、39．71%和48．03%；在省部级、地厅级和县处级后备干部中，少数民族所占的比例也分别达到46%、32%和35%。西藏自治区到1998年藏族干部在全区干部总数中占74．9%，在西藏区、地、县三级领导骨干中，藏族及其他少数民族干部已分别占78%、67%和62%，在科技干部队伍中，藏族及其他少数民族也占到60%以上。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
--The organs of self-government in the autonomous areas have trained a large number of minority cadres, technicians, management personnel and other specialized personnel and skilled workers in line with the needs of national construction and brought their roles in work into full play. There were 372,900 minority cadres in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in 1998, accounting for 35 percent of the total cadres in Guangxi. The chief leaders of the governments of the 12 autonomous counties of this region are from the ethnic minorities exercising regional autonomy and the heads of the region's 62 ethnic townships are also from the ethnic minorities that have established such townships. Minority Party and government leaders of prefectures (cities), counties and townships in this region account for 26.92 percent, 39.71 percent and 48.03 percent of the total Party and government leaders of this region, respectively. Among the reserve cadres at the provincial, prefectural and county levels, minority cadres account for 46 percent, 32 percent, and 35 percent, respectively. In 1998, Tibetan cadres accounted for 74.9 percent of the total in the Tibet Autonomous Region, and at the regional, prefectural and county levels Tibetan cadres and cadres from other local ethnic minorities accounted for 78 percent, 67 percent and 62 percent, respectively. At the same time, cadres from the Tibetan and other ethnic minorities account for more than 60 percent in the scientific and technological departments.
——民族自治地方的自治机关根据国家的教育方针，依照法律，决定本地方的教育规划，各级各类学校的设置、学制、办学形式、教学内容、教学用语和招生办法，自主地发展民族教育（见表一）。1949年以前，宁夏全区文盲率高达95%以上，没有高等教育；现在一个结构合理、各类教育事业互为补充、多层次办学协调发展的教育体系已经形成。截至1998年，宁夏全区有各级各类学校6100多所，在校生达130多万人，其中普通高等学校5所，在校生有1．1万多人，全区非文盲率达到89．5%。旧西藏没有一所现代意义的学校，文盲率高达95％；到1998年，全区已拥有各级各类学校4365所，适龄儿童入学率达到81．3%，文盲率减少了47个百分点。
--Organs of self-government of autonomous areas may decide their own local education programs, including the establishment of schools, the length of study, the forms of school running, course contents, language of instruction and procedures of enrollment and develop independently their own type of education based on their ethnic minority characteristics and within the state education policies and relevant laws (see Table 1). Before 1949, the illiteracy rate was upwards of 95 percent in Ningxia, and there was not a single institution of higher learning. But today, a rational multi-level educational system embracing different types of school that complement each other for coordinated development is in place in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. By 1998, there were 6,100 different kinds of schools in Ningxia, with a total of 1.3 million students. Among them there were five institutions of higher learning, with 11,000 students. As a result, in this region 89.5 percent of the people are literate. In old Tibet, there were no schools in the modern sense, and the illiteracy rate was 95 percent. But by 1998, there were 4,365 schools of all levels in the Tibet Autonomous Region. About 81.3 percent of school-age children now attend school, and the illiteracy rate has been reduced by 47 percentage points.
表一： 1998年与1952年少数民族自治地方教育事业发展对比
项目\年份 1952年 1998年
普通高等学校(所) 11 94
普通高等学校在校生(万人) 0.45 22.64
中等学校(所) 531 13466
中等学校在校生(万人) 20.94 529.64
小学(所) 59597 90704
小学在校生(万人) 467.31 1240.90
Table 1 Educational Development in National Minority Autonomous Areas in 1952 and 1998
Item 1952 1998
institutions of higher learning 11 94
students in institutions of higher learning (10,000 persons) 0.45 22.64
secondary schools 531 13466
students in secondary schools (10,000 persons) 20.94 529.64
primary schools 59597 90704
students in primary schools (10,000 persons) 467.31 1240.90
素有“教育之乡”美誉的吉林省延边朝鲜族自治州，近50年来教育事业得到了长足发展。据统计，1998年全州小学学龄儿童入学率达到99．97%，升学率为99．98%；全州初中入学率达95．2%，毕业率为96．8%，基本普及了九年义务教育。全州高等教育、职业教育、成人教育逐步走上协调发展的轨道，大中专毕业生和中级以上知识分子占人口的比例超过了全国平均水平。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in Jilin Province has made considerable progress in its education in the past 50 years, proving itself worthy of its time-honored reputation as ``home of education.'' According to the latest statistics, 99.97 percent of school age children in this prefecture were in primary schools in 1998, 99.98 percent of them have entered secondary schools of all types and 95.2 percent of them have entered regular junior middle schools, with a graduation rate of 96.8 percent. Nine-year compulsory education is virtually universal in this prefecture. Higher education, vocational education and adult education have gradually got onto the track of coordinated development. The proportion of graduates from universities and secondary specialized schools and intellectuals of the intermediate rank and above in the population of Yanbian exceeds the average number in the country.
——民族自治地方的自治机关自主地决定本地区的医疗卫生事业发展规划，发展现代医药和民族传统医药，加强地方病防治和妇幼卫生保健，改善卫生条件，使少数民族的健康水平得到提高（见表二）。
--Organs of self-government of autonomous areas make their own decisions concerning medical and health work. Modern medicine and traditional ethnic minority medicine are promoted, prevention and cure of endemic diseases and maternal and child care have been improved, with the result that the health standards of the ethnic minorities across the country have markedly improved ( see Table 2).
表二：1998年与1952年少数民族自治地方卫生事业发展对比
项目\年份 1952年 1998年
卫生机构（个） 1176 16700
病床（张） 5711 393000
卫生技术人员（人） 17877 605255
平均每个卫生机构服务的居民（人） 47619 10139
每千人拥有病床（张） 0.10 2.32
平均每个卫生技术人员服务的居民(人) 3132 341
Table 2 Development of Medical and Health Service in National Minority Autonomous Areas in 1952 and 1998
Item 1952 1998
medical and health institutions 1176 16700
hospital beds 5711 393000
medical technicians 17877 605255
one medical institution per 47619 people 10139 people
number of hospital beds per thousand people 0.10 2.32
one medical technician per 3132 people 341 people
内蒙古自治区成立后，仅用三年时间就遏制了鼠疫的流行。宁夏于1963年控制了人间鼠疫。1961年在全国包括少数民族地区消灭了天花。西藏人均寿命由1959年民主改革时的36岁，增加到目前的65岁，婴儿死亡率由四十年前的43%下降到1998年的3．7%。宁夏人均寿命由1949年前的只有30岁左右，增加到目前的69岁。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
It took only three years for the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region after its founding to check the spread of the plague. The Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region controlled the spread of the plague in 1963. In 1961, smallpox was eliminated throughout the whole country, including minority areas. The life span of Tibetans has increased to 65 years from 36 in 1959, the year of the democratic reform started. The infant mortality rate shrank to 3.7 percent in 1998 from 43 percent 40 years previously in Tibet. The life span of the people of Ningxia has increased to 69 from 30 before 1949.
四、促进各民族共同发展
IV. Promoting the Common Development of All Ethnic Groups
中华人民共和国成立前，农牧业是中国少数民族地区的主要产业，发展十分缓慢，一些地区仍停留在“刀耕火种”的原始农业生产方式，部分地区铁制农具尚未得到使用，水利设施更是缺少。1949年，少数民族地区平均粮食亩产只有75公斤，全国少数民族地区农业总产值仅31．2亿元。中华人民共和国成立前，少数民族地区几乎没有现代工业。1949年，全国少数民族地区工业总产值仅有5．4亿元。交通、邮电和通讯事业也处在十分落后的状态，运输主要靠兽驮人背，汽车和公路极少，不少地区一封书信要走上一个月甚至更长时间，许多人没有见过汽车和电话，西藏没有一公里公路。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
Before the founding of the People's Republic of China, agriculture and animal husbandry, the main economies in China's minority areas, developed very slowly. Some areas still remained in the primitive ``slash-and-burn'' stage of agricultural production, and in some areas, iron farm tool were not in use. In addition, water conservancy facilities were inadequate. In 1949 the average per-hectare yield of grain in minority areas was only 1,125 kg, and the total agricultural output of those areas was only worth 3.12 billion yuan. Before the founding of the People's Republic of China, there were almost no modern industries in ethnic minority areas. In 1949, the total industrial output value of these areas was only 540 million yuan. Communications, posts and telecommunications were also very backward; goods were transported mainly by animals and people. There were very few automobiles or highways, and more often than not, it took one month or longer to deliver a letter. Many people had never seen an automobile or a telephone, and there was not a single road in Tibet.
中华人民共和国成立后，国家尽一切努力，促进各民族的共同发展与进步。国家根据民族地区的实际情况，制定和采取了一系列特殊的政策和措施，帮助、扶持民族地区发展经济，并动员和组织汉族发达地区支援民族地区。《中华人民共和国民族区域自治法》中，有十三条规定了上级国家机关帮助民族自治地方发展的义务。国家在制定国民经济和社会发展计划时，有计划、有意识地在少数民族地区安排一些重点工程，调整少数民族地区单一的经济结构，发展多种产业，提高综合经济实力。特别是随着近年来中国改革开放的不断深入发展，国家加大了对少数民族地区的投资力度，加快了少数民族地区对外开放的步伐，使少数民族地区的经济发展呈现新的活力。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, the state has spared no effort to promote the common development and progress of all ethnic groups. In accordance with the actual conditions in the ethnic minority areas, the state has worked out and adopted a series of policies and measures to assist these areas in developing their economies, and mobilize and organize the developed areas where Han people live to support them. In the Law of the People's Republic of China on Ethnic Regional Autonomy, 13 articles specify the duties of the state organs at higher levels to help the ethnic autonomous areas with their development. While working out the plan for the national economic and social development, the state arranged some important projects in the national minority areas in a planned and conscious way to readjust their single-product economic structure, develop diversified industries and improve the comprehensive economic strength of those areas. Especially along with the constant deepening of China's reform and opening to the outside world in recent years, the state has increased its investments in minority areas to speed up their pace of opening-up, thus making the minority areas show new vitality for economic development.
加强少数民族地区基础设施建设，促进基础产业发展
Strengthening the Construction of Infrastructure Facilities and Promoting the Development of Basic Industries in Minority Areas
从“一五”计划（1953—1957年）开始，国家即在内蒙古、新疆、宁夏等民族地区安排了一批重点建设项目，如内蒙古包头钢铁基地、宁夏的青铜峡水电站、新疆的石油勘探和内蒙古兴安岭林区的开发等。仅在五六十年代，国家就在少数民族地区建设了四川至西藏、青海至西藏、新疆至西藏等公路干线，建设了包头至兰州、兰州至西宁、兰州至乌鲁木齐、贵阳至昆明、成都至昆明、成都至贵阳、长沙至贵阳等通往西北、西南少数民族地区的主要铁路干线。国家先后在少数民族地区建设了一大批大中型工业企业，仅在五个民族自治区和云南、贵州、青海三省少数民族聚居地就建设了1400多家。
During the First Five-Year Plan period (1953-1957), the state started to construct a number of key projects in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region and the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, such as the Baotou Iron and Steel Base in Inner Mongolia, the Qingtongxia Hydropower Station in Ningxia, petroleum exploration in Xinjiang and the development of the Hinggan Mountains Forest Area in Inner Mongolia. In the 1950s and 1960s, China completed the Sichuan-Tibet, Qinghai-Tibet, Xinjiang-Tibet and other main highways in minority areas, and built the Baotou-Lanzhou, Lanzhou-Xining, Lanzhou-Urumqi, Guiyang-Kunming, Chengdu-Kunming, Chengdu-Guiyang, and Changsha-Guiyang trunk railways leading to the minority areas in northwest and southwest China. In addition, a large number of large and medium-sized industrial enterprises were set up one after another in minority areas, and a total of more than 1,400 industrial enterprises were set up in the five autonomous regions and the places where ethnic minorities live in concentrated communities in Yunnan, Guizhou and Qinghai provinces.
国家对少数民族地区的基础设施建设和基础产业发展十分关注，近年来优先在少数民族较为集中的中西部地区安排水利、电力、交通、环境保护和资源开发项目，并实行投资倾斜，引导外资更多地投向中西部地区。1998年，国家增加的财政投资用于中西部地区的占62%，中央财政用于中西部地区固定资产投资增长31．2%，高出东部地区14．9个百分点，创新中国成立以来最高水平。这些政策和措施有力地促进了少数民族地区的经济发展（见表三）。据统计，1998年少数民族自治地方铁路营业里程达1．73万公里，是1952年的4．6倍；公路通车里程达37．41万公里，是1952年的14．4倍；邮路及农村投递总长度113．54万公里，是1952年的8．6倍。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The state has shown great concern for infrastructure facilities construction and basic industries development in minority areas, giving priority to the arrangement of water conservancy, power, communications, environmental protection and natural resource development projects in central and western China where ethnic minorities are comparatively concentrated. A preferential policy on investment has been adopted so as to guide more foreign investments to those areas. In 1998, of the total increased financial investment by the state, 62 percent was used in central and western China, and the investment made by the central authorities in fixed assets in central and western China increased by 31.2 percent, or 14.9 percentage points higher than that in eastern China and the highest figure since the founding of New China. These policies and measures have greatly promoted the economic development of ethnic minority areas (see Table 3). According to statistics, in 1998 railway traffic mileage in these areas totaled 17,300 km, or 4.6 times the 1952 figure, and the highway traffic mileage, 374,100 km or 14.4 times the 1952 figure. The postal routes and total rural delivery distance came to 1.1354 million km, or 8.6 times the 1952 figure.
表三：1998年与1952年少数民族自治地方主要工业发展对比
项目\年份 1952年 1998年
工业总产值（亿元） 5.4 5313.0
生铁产量（万吨） 0.90 701.73
钢产量（万吨） 0.06 632.80
原煤产量（万吨） 178.0 17568.6
原油产量（万吨） 5.20 2047.24
发电量（亿千瓦小时） 0.8 1323.1
Table 3 The Development of Major Industries in National Minority Autonomous Areas in 1952 and 1998
Item 1952 1998
total industrial output value (100 million yuan) 5.4 5313.0
output of pig iron (10,000 tons) 0.90 701.73
output of steel (10,000 tons) 0.06 632.80
output of raw coal (10,000 tons) 178.0 17568.6
output of crude oil (10,000 tons) 5.20 2047.24
generated energy (100 million KWH) 0.8 1323.1
近年来，在国家的大力帮助下，新疆陆续建成了乌鲁木齐石化总厂、独山子石化总厂乙烯工程等一批技术先进的现代化大中型工业项目和南疆铁路、塔城机场、吐鲁番—乌鲁木齐—大黄山高等级公路等一批大型交通设施。据统计，在1978年至1997年的20年间，新疆建成投产项目5万多个，其中大中型项目64个，形成固定资产1900多亿元。这些投资使新疆的水利、交通、邮电等基础设施环境有了很大改善。新疆现已成为全国第四大产油及加工区，是全国重要的棉、毛纺业基地和毛皮加工基地⑨。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
In recent years, thanks to huge state assistance, Xinjiang has completed a number of modern, technologically advanced large and medium-sized industrial projects, such as the Urumqi General Petrochemicals Factory and the ethylene project of the Dushanzi General Petrochemicals Factory, as well as a number of large communications facilities, such as the Southern Xinjiang Railway, the Tacheng Airport and the high-grade Turpan-Urumqi-Dahuangshan Highway. According to statistics, during the 20 years from 1978 to 1997, Xinjiang completed and put into operation more than 50,000 projects, including 64 large and medium-sized ones, with fixed assets totaling 190 billion yuan. These investments have greatly improved Xinjiang's water conservancy, communications, posts and telecommunications and other infrastructure facilities. Xinjiang has become the fourth-biggest oil producing and processing area in China, as well as an important cotton and woolen textile base and a fur processing base9.
中央政府对西藏的基础设施建设和基础产业发展给予了特殊的支持。1984年，中央组织九省市的人力、物力，用一年多的时间，在西藏援助修建了包括能源、交通、建材、市政建设等43项工程，投资达4．8亿元。1994年，中央政府又决定由中央和全国其他省市无偿援助西藏建设62项工程，总投资超过40亿元，现已有60项竣工。1997年，国家投资20．14亿元的羊卓雍湖抽水蓄能电站竣工、发电。据统计，从五十年代到1998年，中央政府共向西藏投入400多亿元，并调动了大量物资进藏。中央政府和其他省市的援助，极大地改善了西藏的基础设施和基础工业建设，如今西藏已拥有电力、采矿、建材、森工、毛纺、印刷、食品等现代工业。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The Central Government has extended special support to the construction of infrastructure facilities and the development of basic industries in Tibet. In 1984, the Central Government organized manpower and material resources from nine provinces and municipalities to help Tibet build 43 projects in just over a year, covering energy, communications, construction materials and municipal works and involving a total investment of 480 million yuan. In 1994, the Central Government also decided that the central authorities and the provinces and municipalities throughout the country should help Tibet construct 62 projects without compensation, with the total investment exceeding four billion yuan. So far, 60 of them have been completed. In 1997 the Yamzho Yumco Water Pumping and Energy Storing Power Station, built with state investment totaling 2.014 billion yuan, was completed and began to generate electricity. According to statistics, from the 1950s to 1998, the Central Government invested more than 40 billion yuan in Tibet, and transported a great amount of materials to it. The aid offered by the Central Government and other provinces and municipalities has greatly improved the construction of infrastructure facilities and basic industries in Tibet. Now Tibet has power, mining, construction materials, forestry, woolen textile, printing, food and other modern industries.
发展少数民族地区农牧业经济
Developing Agriculture and Animal Husbandry in Ethnic Minority Areas
中华人民共和国成立后，从中央到地方的各级政府积极领导少数民族农牧民开展农田基本建设和草原基本建设，采取各种措施发展农村经济，提高农业生产水平。政府通过无偿发放农具、发放生产资金、减免农牧业税、发放无息或低息贷款等措施，扶持少数民族地区农村经济的发展，取得了显著成就（见表四）。1998年，少数民族自治地方农民人均纯收入达1633．11元，是1980年的21．5倍。
Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, the governments at all levels, from the central to the local, have actively led ethnic minority farmers and herdsmen to start capital construction on farmland and grasslands, and have adopted various measures to develop the rural economy and improve the agricultural production level. Through various measures, such as providing free farm tools and production capital, reducing and exempting agricultural and animal husbandry taxes, and issuing interest-free or low-interest loans, the Chinese government has made remarkable achievements in supporting the rural economic development of the areas inhabited by minority peoples (see Table 4). In 1998, the net income per farmer in ethnic minority autonomous areas reached 1,633.11 yuan, or 21.5 times the 1980 figure.
表四：1998年与1952年少数民族自治地方主要农牧业发展对比
项目\年份 1952年 1998年
农业总产值（亿元） 31．2 3210．5
粮食产量（万吨） 1581．50 7295．43
大牲畜总数（万头） 2439．2 5564．7
Table 4 Main Items of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Development in National Minority Autonomous Areas in 1952 and 1998
Item 1952 1998
total agricultural output value (100 million yuan) 31.2 3210.5
grain output (10,000 tons) 1581.5 7295.43
total number of big livestock (10,000 head) 2439.2 5564.7
八十年代初，中央政府对西藏确定了“土地归户使用、自主经营”和“牲畜归户、私有私养、自主经营”的两个长期不变政策，并对农民实行“免征免税”的优惠政策，从而极大地调动了占西藏人口80%以上的农牧民的生产积极性，农业生产连年丰收。1998年西藏全区粮食总产量达85万吨，比1959年增长4．6倍。为进一步改善西藏农牧业生产条件，国家在九十年代投资20多亿元，综合开发治理雅鲁藏布江、拉萨河、年楚河“一江两河”流域的农业基础设施，整个项目计划修建40项工程，项目完成后，受益耕地约占西藏现有耕地面积的45．6%。在国家的支持下，宁夏1989年以来在河套灌区先后完成了第一、二期农业综合开发，开垦荒地4万公顷，改造中低产田10万多公顷，新增粮食生产能力近4亿公斤⑩。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
In the early 1980s, the Central Government decided on two policies toward Tibet that would not be changed for a long time to come -- ``The land will be used by households, and will be managed by them on their own,'' and ``livestock will be owned, raised and managed by households on their own'' --and offered exemption from taxes to farmers, thus greatly rousing the enthusiasm for production of the farmers and herdsmen, who make up over 80 percent of the total population of Tibet, and resulting in bumper harvests in agricultural production year after year. In 1998, the total grain output of the Tibet Autonomous Region stood at 850,000 tons, or 5.6 times the 1959 figure. To further improve the conditions for agricultural and animal husbandry production, in the 1990s the state has invested more than two billion yuan to comprehensively develop and improve the agricultural infrastructure facilities in the valleys of the Yarlungzangbo, Lhasa and Nyangqu rivers. It is planned that 40 projects will be constructed. After the completion of these projects, 45.6 percent of the existing cultivated area in Tibet will benefit from them. Thanks to the support of the state, since 1989 the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region has completed the first and second phases of the comprehensive agricultural development in the Hetao Irrigated Area, reclaimed 40,000 ha of wasteland, and ameliorated more than 100,000 ha of medium- and low-yield fields, enabling an additional production capacity of nearly 400 million kg of grain10.
为帮助民族乡的发展，1993年中国政府制定了《民族乡行政工作条例》，规定上级政府应在财政、金融、税收、基础设施建设等方面采取特殊政策和措施支持民族乡发展经济。在“八五”期间（1991—1995年），政府每年设立1亿元贴息贷款，用于扶持少数民族地区发展乡镇企业。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
To accelerate the development of the townships, in 1993 the Chinese government formulated the Regulations on the Administrative Work of Ethnic Townships, specifying that the governments at higher levels should adopt special policies and measures concerning finance, banking, taxation, the construction of infrastructure facilities, and other fields to help ethnic townships to develop their economies. During the Eighth Five-Year Plan period (1991-1995), the Chinese government offered discount-interest loans totaling 100 million yuan every year to assist minority areas in developing township enterprises.
加大少数民族地区改革开放力度
Increasing the Momentum of Reform and Opening-Up in Minority Areas
中国自七十年代末实行改革开放政策以来，少数民族地区同全国其他地区一样，按照建立社会主义市场经济体制的改革目标，实施了农村、国企、财税、金融、投资、外贸、流通、社会保障、住房等方面的一系列改革，经济体制和运行机制发生了根本性的变化，国民经济的市场化和社会化程度明显提高。同时，随着国家全方位、多层次、宽领域对外开放格局的形成，少数民族地区发挥各自的沿海、沿江、沿边特点，积极发展边贸和对外经济技术合作，对外开放进入新的阶段，在全国对外开放总体格局中的地位和作用也日益突出。
Since the adoption of the policy of reform and opening-up by China at the end of the 1970s, minority areas, like the other areas throughout the country, have undertaken, along the line of establishing a socialist market economy system, a series of reforms concerning rural areas, state-owned enterprises, taxes, finance, investment, foreign trade, circulation, social security, and housing. Fundamental changes have taken place in their economic systems and operational mechanisms; and the level of marketization and socialization of the local economies have been remarkably improved. Meanwhile, along with the formation of the state omni-directional, multi-level and wide-ranging opening pattern, ethnic minority areas have brought into full play their respective advantages of lying along the coasts, the rivers and the country's borders to actively develop border trade and foreign economic and technological cooperation; and their opening to the outside world has entered a new stage. Their status and role in the nation's overall opening pattern is also becoming daily more pronounced.
七十年代末以来，国家在保留对民族地区的财政补贴并设立发展基金等多项优惠政策的同时，鼓励少数民族地区从本地的实际出发，积极开展外引内联，发展边境贸易，支持少数民族地区通过积极稳妥的改革，推动社会经济结构的调整，增强自我发展能力。
Since the end of the 1970s, while adopting various preferential policies, such as extending financial subsidies to minority areas and establishing development funds, the state has encouraged minority areas to actively start the introduction of foreign investment and technology and domestic cooperation, and develop frontier trade according to local circumstances. It has supported minority areas in their efforts to promote the readjustment of their social and economic structures, and strengthen their self-development ability through active and stable reform measures.
1987年，国家确定，在边疆少数民族地区选择一些条件较好的地方，借鉴国际上设立内陆开发区和边境自由贸易区的做法，加快对外开放步伐。为活跃沿边地区的经济，富裕边民，促进与周边国家的经贸合作，1992年国家决定进一步开放内蒙古自治区的满洲里、二连浩特，吉林省的珲春，新疆维吾尔自治区的伊宁、博乐、塔城，广西壮族自治区的凭祥、东兴等少数民族较为集中的内陆边境城市。1993年，国家选择了呼伦贝尔盟、乌海市、延边朝鲜族自治州、黔东南苗族侗族自治州、临夏回族自治州、格尔木市、伊犁哈萨克自治州等七个民族地区作为改革开放的试点。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
In 1987, the state defined that places with right conditions in frontier minority areas should be selected to learn the international experiences of setting up inland development zones and frontier free trade zones, to speed up the opening there. To enliven economy in frontier areas, bring prosperity to frontier residents and promote economic and trade cooperation with adjacent countries, the state decided, in 1992, further to open a number of inland border cities with large minority populations, including Manzhouli and Erlianhot of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Hunchun of Jilin Province, Yining, Bole and Tacheng of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, and Pingxiang and Dongxing of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. In 1993, the state selected seven ethnic localities--Hulun Buir League, Wuhai City, Yanbian Korea Autonomous Prefecture, Southeast Guizhou Miao-Dong Autonomous Prefecture, Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture, Golmud City, and Ili Kazak Autonomous Prefecture, as areas for pilot projects for reform and opening-up.
八十年代后，广西壮族自治区的北海市被国家列为14个沿海开放城市之一，还有一市五县列为国家沿海经济开放区；乌鲁木齐市、南宁市、昆明市、呼和浩特市、银川市、西宁市、贵阳市等少数民族自治区首府和少数民族较多的省的省会城市被国家列为内陆开放城市；国家还先后批准了桂林市、南宁市、乌鲁木齐市、包头市四个民族地区大中城市建立高新技术产业开发区。
In the 1980s, Beihai City in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region was listed as one of the country's 14 coastal open cities; another one city and five counties were named as national coastal economic open zones; Urumqi, Nanning, Kunming, Hohhot, Yinchuan, Xining, Guiyang and other capital cities of ethnic minority autonomous regions and provinces which have fairly large minority populations, were listed as inland open cities; the state also gave approval to Guilin, Nanning, Urumqi and Baotou cities, which are four large and medium-sized cities in minority areas, to establish new- and high-tech industrial development zones.
目前，新疆已同世界上70多个国家和地区建立了稳定的经贸关系。1992年至1997年，新疆进出口贸易总额达69．9亿美元，年均增长21．1％。新疆六个开放城市和经济技术开发区、边境经济合作区各方面的建设和招商引资都取得重大成果。新疆已开通15个开放口岸，兰新铁路复线和第二座亚欧大陆桥的贯通，使一个现代化的西北国际大通道初步形成。
So far, Xinjiang has established stable economic and trade relations with more than 70 countries and regions worldwide. From 1992 to 1997, Xinjiang's total import and export volume reached 6.99 billion US dollars-worth, with an average annual growth rate of 21.1 percent. The six open cities, the economic and technological development zones, and the frontier economic cooperation zones in Xinjiang have made great achievements in construction and investment solicitation. Xinjiang has opened 15 trading ports, and the completion of the multiple tracking of the Lanzhou-Xinjiang Railway and the opening of the second Euro-Asia Continental Bridge has resulted in the basic formation of a modernized northwest international thoroughfare.
广西对外开放以来，外来投资不断增长。“八五”时期（1991—1995年）实际利用外资（含外国政府贷款）32．4亿美元，比“七五”期间（1986—1990年）增长5．6倍。至1997年末，广西累计批准外资项目8505个，合同外资金额137．9亿美元，实际利用外资67．1亿美元。目前，到广西投资的国家和地区已达30多个○。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
Since Guangxi adopted the policy of openingto the outside world, its foreign capital has constantly increased. During the Eighth Five-Year Plan period (1991-1995), Guangxi actually utilized 3.24 billion US dollars of foreign capital (including loans from foreign governments), or 6.6 times the figure of the Seventh Five-Year Plan period (1986-1990). By the end of 1997, Guangxi had accumulatively approved 8,505 foreign-invested projects, involving 13.79 billion US dollars of contracted foreign capital, and had actually utilized 6.71 billion US dollars of foreign capital. So far, more than 30 countries and regions have invested in Guangxi11.
对少数民族地区实行优惠的财政政策
Preferential Financial Policies for Minority Areas
国家财政从1955年起就设立“民族地区补助费”，1964年又设立“民族地区机动金”，并采取提高民族地区财政预备费的设置比例等优惠财政政策，帮助少数民族地区发展经济和提高人民生活水平。据统计，仅上述三项优惠政策，到1998年国家就对少数民族地区累计补助达168亿元。1980年，中央财政又对五个民族自治区及贵州、云南、青海三个少数民族比较集中的省实行定额补助制度，上述三项优惠政策也计入定额补助中继续予以保留。从1980年到1998年，少数民族自治地区获中央财政定额补助1400多亿元。1980年，国家设立支援经济不发达地区发展资金，其中很大一部分用于少数民族地区。1986年，国家设扶贫贴息贷款和以工代赈资金，其中很大一部分用于少数民族地区。1994年，国家实施“分税制”财政管理体制改革，原有对少数民族地区的补助和专项拨款政策全都保持下来。国家在1995年开始实行的过渡期转移支付办法中，对西藏等五个自治区和云南、贵州、青海以及其他省的少数民族自治州专门增设了政策性转移支付内容，对少数民族地区实行政策性倾斜，政策性转移支付额随国家财力的增长不断增加。1998年，中央对五个民族自治区和少数民族较为集中的贵州、云南、青海省的一般性转移支付额近29亿元，占全国转移支付总额的48%。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The state set up "ethnic region subsidies" in 1955, and the Flexible Ethnic Region Fund in 1964, and adopted the preferential financial policy of raising the proportion of the financial reserve fund of the ethnic regions to help minority areas develop their economies and improve the local people's livelihoods. According to statistics, in terms of the above-mentioned three preferential policies, the state had offered 16.8 billion yuan of subsidies to minority areas by 1998. Since 1980, the central financial authorities have adopted a quota subsidy system for the five autonomous regions and the three provinces with large ethnic minority populations--Guizhou, Yunnan and Qinghai provinces. The above-mentioned three preferential policies have also been included in the quota subsidy system. From 1980 to 1998, the autonomous areas received more than 140 billion yuan of quota subsidies from the central financial authorities. In 1980, the state set up a fund to aid the development of economically underdeveloped areas, of which a large part was used in minority areas. In 1986 the state set up the help-the-poor discount-interest loan and capital for providing employment as a form of relief, of which a large proportion was used in minority areas. In 1994 China began to reform the "revenue-sharing-scheme" financial management system. In the meantime, all the original subsidies and special financial allocation policies for minority areas were preserved. With respect to the transfer payment method for the transition period which China adopted in 1995, the state specially added the policy-related transfer-payment contents for the five autonomous regions, including Tibet, and the autonomous prefectures in Yunnan, Guizhou, Qinghai and other provinces, offering preferential policies to the ethnic minority areas. The policy-related transfer-payment sum has constantly increase along with the growth of the state's financial capacity. In 1998 the ordinary transfer-payment sum by the central authorities to the five autonomous regions and Guizhou, Yunnan and Qinghai provinces where ethnic minorities are fairly concentrated was nearly 2.9 billion yuan, making up 48 percent of the nation's total transfer-payment sum.
鼓励少数民族地区发展贸易，照顾少数民族用品生产
Encouraging the Development of Trade in Minority Areas and Guaranteeing the Production of Articles Used by Minority Peoples
国家对民族贸易实行优惠政策，扶持其发展，如1963年开始实行利润留成照顾、自有资金照顾和价格补贴照顾的“三项照顾”政策等。为尊重少数民族的风俗习惯和宗教信仰，适应和满足各少数民族生产生活特殊用品的需要，国家不仅确定了涉及服装、鞋帽、家具、绸缎、食品、生产工具、手工艺品、装饰用品、乐器等16个大类、4000余个民族用品品种，而且还采取建立专门生产基地、优先保证生产资金和原材料供应、减免税收、低息贷款、运费补贴等优惠政策。
The state adopts preferential policies toward ethnic trade. For instance, since 1963 it has adopted a threefold policy in this regard. This ensures a portion of reserved profits, self-owned capital and price subsidies for minority peoples. To respect the folkways, customs and religious beliefs of ethnic minorities and satisfy their needs for special articles of daily use, the state guarantees the production of more than 4,000 varieties of ethnic articles, which fall into 16 categories, such as garments, shoes, hats, furniture, silks and satins, foodstuff, production tools, handicrafts, ornaments and musical instruments. It has also extended some preferential policies, such as setting up special production bases, giving priority to the guarantee of production capital and the supply of raw and processed materials, reduction of and exemption from taxes, low-interest loans, transportation subsidies, etc.
1991年以来，国家结合改革开放的新形势，对民族贸易和民族用品生产的优惠政策进行相应调整。“八五”期间（1991—1995年），国家对426个民族贸易县的商业、供销、医药企业和2300多家民族用品定点生产企业在信贷、投资、税收和商品供应等方面给予优惠照顾，并设立专项贴息贷款用于民族贸易网点建设和民族用品定点生产企业的技术改造。1997年6月，国家出台了新的民族贸易和民族用品生产的优惠政策，其中包括在“九五”期间（1996—2000年）每年由中国人民银行安排1亿元贴息贷款用于民族贸易网点建设和民族用品定点生产企业的技术改造，对县以下（不含县）国有民族贸易企业和基层供销社免征增值税等。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
Since 1991, in light of the new situation of reform and opening-up, the state has made appropriate readjustments in the preferential policies concerning ethnic trade and the production of ethnic articles for daily use. During the Eighth Five-Year Plan period (1991-1995), the state offered preferential treatment to commercial, supply and marketing and pharmaceuticals enterprises and more than 2,300 designated enterprises for producing ethnic articles for daily use in the 426 designated ethnic trade counties in terms of credits, investment, taxation and the supply of commodities, and offered special discount-interest loans for the construction of an ethnic trade network, and the technological transformation of designated enterprises for producing ethnic articles for daily use. As part of a new package of preferential policies offered for the same purpose by the state in June 1997, the People's Bank of China will offer 100 million yuan in a discount-interest loan a year during the Ninth Five-Year Plan period (1996-2000) for the construction of an ethnic trade network and the technological transformation of the designated enterprises for producing ethnic articles for daily use, and the state-owned ethnic trade enterprises and grass-roots supply and marketing cooperatives below the county level (excluding the county) shall be exempt from value-added tax.
扶持少数民族贫困地区摆脱贫困
Helping Impoverished Minority Areas Get Rid of Poverty
中华人民共和国成立以来，尽管少数民族人民的生活有了很大改善，但由于自然地理的制约，以及社会发展程度低、生产条件差、科技和文化知识不够普及等原因，少数民族较为集中的西部地区与东部沿海地区比较，发展相对落后，有些少数民族地区生产和生活条件还相当困难，还有部分少数民族人民的温饱问题尚未得到解决。中国自八十年代中期大规模地开展有组织有计划的扶贫工作以来，少数民族和民族地区始终是国家重点扶持对象。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
Although the minority people's life has witnessed tremendous improvement since the founding of the people's Republic of China, restricted by geographical conditions, a low social development level, bad production conditions, and lack of scientific, technological and cultural knowledge, western China, where minority peoples live in concentrated communities, is relatively backward as compared with the coastal areas in eastern China. In some minority areas, production and living conditions are fairly difficult, and the people's basic needs of some people are not assured. Since the mid- 1980s, when China started a large-scale help-the-poor drive in an organized and planned way, the state has always attached importance to helping the minority peoples and minority areas.
在十多年的扶贫开发过程中，少数民族贫困地区除享受其他贫困地区扶贫开发的优惠政策外，还享受国家制定的一系列特殊政策：
During the help-the-poor efforts in the past decade or so, poverty-stricken minority areas have enjoyed the preferential help-the-poor policy offered by the Chinese government to other poverty-stricken areas, as well as a series of special policies formulated by the state:
（一）放宽标准，扩大对少数民族地区的扶持范围。1986年首次确定国家重点贫困县时，将少数民族自治县列为重点贫困县的标准从全国统一的1985年人均收入低于150元放宽到200元，对牧区和民族地区的一些困难县放宽到300元。当时确定的331个国家重点扶持贫困县中有少数民族贫困县141个，占总数的42．6%。1994年开始实施《国家八七扶贫攻坚计划》时，重新调整了国家重点扶贫县对象，在确定的592个国家重点扶持贫困县中有257个少数民族县，占总数的43．4%。
(1) Expanding the sphere of aiding the minority areas. In 1986, when identifying the most seriously poverty-stricken counties for the first time, the state raised the national unified standard for per capita subsidies in poverty-stricken counties from 150 yuan a year in 1985 to 200 yuan for ethnic minority autonomous counties, and 300 yuan for pastoral areas and certain other counties in minority areas. Of the 331 most seriously poverty-stricken counties designated at that time, 141 were inhabited by minority peoples, making up 42.6 percent of the total. At the start of the State Seven-Year Priority Poverty Alleviation Program (a program designated to lift 80 million people out of absolute poverty in a period of seven years from 1994 to 2000) in 1994, China readjusted the plan for the state's key poverty alleviation counties, and decided that 592 counties be the state's key poverty alleviation counties, of which 257 were ethnic minority counties, making up 43.4 percent.
（二）在扶贫资金和物资的分配上重点向少数民族贫困县倾斜。国家在分配扶贫资金和物资时将五个民族自治区全部视同西部省区，予以重点扶持。部分省区在分配扶贫资金时专门切出一部分资金用于扶持少数民族贫困县。据不完全统计，1996年至1998年国家共向257个少数民族贫困县投入中央扶贫资金169．5亿元，占扶贫资金总数的45％。
(2) Giving priority to poverty-stricken ethnic minority counties in terms of the distribution of help-the-poor capital and materials. While distributing the help-the-poor capital and materials, the Chinese government put the five autonomous regions on the same footing as western China, placing them all on the priority list. Some provinces and autonomous regions allocate special funds to help the poverty-stricken ethnic minority counties while distributing the help-the-poor funds. According to incomplete statistics, from 1996 to 1998 the state allocated 16.95 billion yuan from the Central Government's help-the-poor funds to the 257 poverty-stricken ethnic minority counties, making up 45 percent of the total.
（三）对少数民族贫困地区安排专项扶贫资金。从1983年到2002年，中央政府每年拨出2亿元专款用于甘肃和宁夏少数民族比较集中的“三西”（甘肃省的定西、河西地区和宁夏回族自治区的西海固地区）干旱地区的农业建设。从1990年起，国家专门设立了“少数民族贫困地区温饱基金”，重点扶持全国143个少数民族贫困县。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
(3) Arranging special help-the-poor funds for the poverty-stricken ethnic minority areas. Since 1983, the Central Government has allocated a yearly 200 million yuan of special funds for the agricultural construction of the arid "three Xis" (Dingxi and Hexi prefectures in Gansu Province, and Xihaigu Prefecture in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region), where ethnic minority people live in concentrated communities; and it will continue to do so up to the year 2002. In 1990, the state set up the "basic need fund for the poverty-stricken ethnic minority areas", putting stress on helping the 143 poverty-stricken ethnic minority counties throughout the country.
（四）积极开展同国际组织在少数民族贫困地区扶贫开发的合作。1995年以来，世界银行在中国实施了三期扶贫项目，贷款规模总计6．1亿美元，覆盖了广西、内蒙古、宁夏及其他省区的43个少数民族贫困县。
(4) Actively conducting cooperation with international organizations in poverty alleviation and development in the poverty-stricken ethnic minority areas. Since 1995, the World Bank has implemented three phases of a help-the-poor project in China, involving a total loan of 610 million US dollars, and covering 43 poverty-stricken ethnic minority counties in Guangxi, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia and other places.
（五）组织东部省、市同少数民族地区开展扶贫协作。1996年，中央政府决定组织九个沿海发达省、直辖市和四个计划单列市对口帮助西部10个贫困省、自治区，三年来共捐款捐物10．4亿元，实施合作项目2074个，投资近40亿元。
(5) Organizing the provinces and municipalities in east China to start help-the-poor cooperation with the minority areas. In 1996 the Central Government decided to organize nine developed coastal provinces and municipalities and four cities with economic planning directly supervised by the State Council to help 10 poverty-stricken provinces and autonomous regions in western China. In the past three they have donated money and materials valued at 1.04 billion yuan, and carried out 2,074 cooperation projects, involving a total investment of nearly four billion yuan.
通过十多年的扶贫开发，中国少数民族地区人民的生产和生活条件得到了明显改善。从1995年到1998年，257个少数民族贫困县解决了1092万人、1514万头牲畜饮水问题，五个民族自治区贫困人口从835万人下降到473万人，贫困发生率由12．4%下降到6．9%，贫困县农民人均纯收入从833元增加到1395元。同时，少数民族地区基础设施建设进一步加快。1995年到1998年，新修基本农田1000多万亩，修建公路6．9万公里，架设输变电线路11．7万公里。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
Thanks to the help-the-poor efforts in the last decade or so, the production and living conditions of the people of the minority areas in China have improved remarkably. From 1995 to 1998, 257 poverty-stricken ethnic minority counties had solved the drinking water problem for 10.92 million people and 15.14 million head of livestock; the poverty-stricken population of the five autonomous regions shrank from 8.35 million to 4.73 million; the poverty rate dropped from 12.4 percent to 6.9 percent; and the net annual income per farmer in the poverty-stricken counties increased from 833 yuan to 1,395 yuan. Meanwhile, the construction of infrastructure facilities in minority areas has been further speeded up. Between 1995 and 1998 about 667,000 ha of basic farmland were constructed, newly built highways and rough roads extended 69,000 km, and transmission and transformer lines totaled 117,000 km.
对少数民族实行宽于汉族的生育政策
Implementing a More Lenient Childbirth Policy with Minority Peoples Than with the Han People
为提高少数民族人口素质，加快民族自治地方的经济社会发展，中国各民族自治地方的人民代表大会，根据国家有关少数民族也要实行计划生育的精神，制定了本地区少数民族的计划生育政策。其生育政策宽于汉族的生育政策，一般规定，少数民族家庭可以生育两个或三个孩子；边境地区和自然环境恶劣的地区、人口特别稀少的少数民族可以生育三个以上的孩子；西藏自治区的藏族农牧民可以不受限制地生育子女。这使得少数民族人口的增长速度高于全国平均水平。1953年全国第一次人口普查时，新疆的少数民族人口为454万人，1990年全国第四次人口普查时，新疆的少数民族人口增至946万人，到1998年，新疆的少数民族人口达到1046．01万人，占新疆总人口的62％。1952年，以达赖为首的西藏地方政府向中央政府申报的西藏人口为100万人，到1998年，西藏人口已增至252万人，仅藏族人口就增加了120万人。目前，藏族人口约占全自治区总人口的94％。
To improve the quality of the ethnic minority population and accelerate the economic and social development of the ethnic minority autonomous areas, the people's congresses of these areas have formulated their own family planning policies toward the ethnic minorities in light of the spirit of the state's regulations concerning the need also for minority peoples to practice family planning. These policies are more lenient than those with the Han people. Under these policies, an ethnic minority family generally may have two or three children; in frontier areas and areas with adverse geographical conditions, families of ethnic minorities with very small populations may have more than three children each; and Tibetan farmers and herdsmen in the Tibet Autonomous Region may have as many children as they like. As a result, ethnic minority populations have been able to increase at a higher rate than the rest of the population. The population of ethnic minorities in Xinjiang was 4.54 million, according to the first national census, taken in 1953, and it increased to 9.46 million in the fourth census, taken in 1990. By 1998, the total population of ethnic minorities in Xinjiang was 10.4601 million, accounting for 62 percent of the total population of the autonomous region. In 1952, the Tibetan local government, headed by the 14th Dalai Lama, reported to the Central Government that the population of Tibet was one million. By the end of 1998, the population of Tibet had increased to 2.52 million, of which the increase of Tibetan population was 1.2 million. At present, the Tibetan population accounts for 94 percent of the total population of the Tibet Autonomous Region.
支持和帮助少数民族地区发展教育
Helping the Minority Areas to Develop Education
民族教育是中国教育事业的重要组成部分。发展民族教育，对于提高少数民族人口素质，促进少数民族地区的经济文化发展，有着重要意义。国家根据现代化建设的需要和发展教育事业的方针政策，坚持从少数民族的特点和民族地区的实际出发，积极支持和帮助少数民族发展教育事业。
Education among national minorities is an important part of the education of China. The development of education among national minorities is of paramount importance to the improvement of the quality of the minority population and the promotion of economic and cultural development in ethnic minority areas. In conformity with the needs of the modernization drive and the policies of educational development, the state persists in proceeding from the characteristics of minority peoples and the reality of minority areas and gives active support and assistance to minority peoples in their efforts for educational development.
国家采取了许多政策和措施支持少数民族教育事业的发展，如赋予和尊重少数民族自治地方自主发展民族教育的权利，重视民族语文教学和双语教学，加强少数民族师资队伍建设，在经费上给予特殊照顾，举办民族院校和民族班，实行定向招生，积极开展内地省市对少数民族地区教育的对口支援，全国支援西藏教育事业等。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The state has adopted many policies and measures to support the development of education among minority peoples. For instance, it respects the autonomous areas' right to develop ethnic education on their own, attaches importance to teaching in minority languages and bilingual teaching, strengthens the building of the ranks of minority teachers, offers special care in terms of funds, runs ethnic institutes, schools and classes that enroll students for future service in specific areas or units, actively starts counterpart educational support between inland provinces and municipalities and minority areas, and mobilizes the whole nation to support education in Tibet.
国家对贫困地区特别是少数民族贫困地区的普及义务教育给予重点扶持。1993年，国家有关部门提出了经济、教育比较发达的省、直辖市与国家重点扶持的143个少数民族贫困县开展教育对口支援协作的意见，明确了协作关系和教育扶贫的主要任务。国家教育部和财政部联合组织实施了国家贫困地区义务教育工程。按照工程规划，在1995—2000年间，中央财政将投入39亿元，加上地方配套资金将超过100亿元。这项工程的启动，对推动少数民族贫困地区的普及义务教育有着重要作用。国家鼓励通过建立“希望工程”等形式资助民族地区发展基础教育，如1995年湖南湘西土家族苗族自治州通过“希望工程”建成了136所希望小学，解决了数万少数民族贫困儿童的失学问题。
The state has paid great attention to promoting universal compulsory education in poverty-stricken areas, especially poverty-stricken ethnic minority areas. In 1993, the relevant government departments proposed that counterpart support and cooperation between the economically and educationally advanced provinces and municipalities and the 143 poverty-stricken ethnic minority counties under government supervision should be started, and defined the cooperative relations and the main tasks of helping the poor through education. The Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Finance jointly organized the implementation of the state's compulsory education project for the poverty-stricken areas. In accordance with the project's plan, between 1995 and 2000, the central authorities will invest 3.9 billion yuan into this project, which will exceed 10 billion yuan if the supporting capital to be contributed by local authorities is added to it. The launching of this project will play an important role in promoting the popularization of compulsory education in poverty-stricken ethnic minority areas. The state encourages people to help minority areas to develop basic education through the "Hope Project" and other forms. For instance, the Western Hunan Tujia-Miao Autonomous Prefecture has founded 136 Hope primary schools, thus enabling tens of thousands of poverty-stricken minority children to attend to school.
国家兴办了一批民族院校。截至1998年，国家独立设置的民族院校有民族大学和民族学院12所、民族师范学校59所、民族职业中学158所、民族中学3536所、民族小学20906所。民族院校先后开设了一些民族预科班，在其他的一些高等学校、中等专业学校和成人高等学校也相继举办了相当数量的少数民族预科班。1998年，全国举办民族预科班的高等院校达80余所，当年计划招生7142名。预科教育对提高少数民族学生的文化基础知识，使更多的少数民族学生升入高、中等专业学校学习起了很大的作用，它已成为主要为少数民族学生举办的独具特色的办学形式。
The state itself runs a number of ethnic institutes and schools. By the end of 1998, the state had independently founded 12 ethnic universities and institutes, 59 ethnic teachers' training schools, 158 ethnic secondary vocational schools, 3,536 ethnic middle schools, and 20,906 ethnic primary schools. Ethnic institutions of higher learning, secondary specialized schools and adult institutions of high learning and ordinary higher educational institutions, conduct quite a number of preparatory classes for minority peoples. In 1998, more than 80 institutions of higher learning in China held such classes, with a planned enrollment of 7,142 students. Preparatory education has played a great role in improving minority students' basic cultural knowledge, and enabling more minority students to continue their studies at secondary and higher specialized schools. It has become a unique way of developing education geared to the needs of minority students.
五、保护和发展少数民族文化
V. Preservation and Development of the Cultures of Ethnic Minorities
中国各少数民族在长期的历史发展过程中，都形成了本民族独具特色和风格各异的文化。在中国，少数民族传统文化受到尊重和保护，各民族都可以自由地保持和发展本民族的文化。
China's ethnic minorities have formed their unique cultures in the long process of historical development. China respects and preserves the traditional cultures of ethnic minorities, and all of the minority peoples are free to maintain and develop their own cultures.
尊重少数民族风俗习惯
Respecting the Folkways and Customs of Minority Peoples
中国各少数民族的风俗习惯差异较大，具有不同的生产方式和生活方式，表现在服饰、饮食、居住、婚姻、礼仪、丧葬等多方面。国家尊重少数民族风俗习惯，少数民族享有保持或改革本民族风俗习惯的权利。在社会生活的各方面，政府对少数民族保持或改革本民族风俗习惯的权利加以保护。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The various ethnic minority groups in China differ widely in their folkways and customs. They have different modes of production and life styles, as displayed in dress and adornments, diet, residences, marriage, etiquette and funerals. The minority peoples have the right to retain or change their folkways and customs, which are respected by the state. The government protects such rights in every aspect of social life.
在中国，约有十个少数民族有食用清真食品的传统习惯。为妥善解决好食用清真食品的少数民族的伙食问题，国家在食用清真食品的少数民族较多的机关、学校、企事业单位，设立清真食堂或清真伙食，人数较少的采取几个单位联合举办或备专门灶具。在食用清真食品的少数民族较集中的地方，广设清真饮食网点，在城市、交通要道、饭店、旅馆、医院，以及列车、轮船、飞机等交通设施上，设清真食堂或清真伙食点。国家对经营清真饮食有严格的规定，要求对食用清真食品的少数民族食用的牛羊肉，在屠宰、包装、运输、加工、销售等各环节上，都必须标明“清真”字样。在食用清真食品的少数民族聚居的大、中城市，国家有关部门设立专门经营牛羊肉的批发部门或零售机构，并在政策上给予优惠。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
In China, about ten minority peoples have the tradition of eating Muslim food. Taking this into consideration, the state has established Muslim canteens or supplies Muslim food in state organs, schools, enterprises and institutions. In some work units where people eating Muslim food are few, Muslim canteens are jointly established by several units or Muslim food is specially prepared. Muslim food and beverage shops can be found in places where Muslim ethnic minorities live in concentrated communities. In cities, communication hubs, restaurants, hotels and hospitals, and on trains, ships and airplanes, Muslim catering is provided. The state stipulates that ``Muslim food'' must be marked on beef and mutton sold to ethnic minorities which eat Muslim food at all the stages of slaughtering, packaging, transporting, processing and selling. In large and medium-sized cities where there are large numbers of ethnic minority people who eat Muslim food, the relevant state departments have established special beef and mutton wholesale departments or retail shops and given them preferential treatment.
中国各少数民族的丧葬习俗各有不同，有火葬、土葬、水葬、天葬等不同的葬法。政府尊重少数民族的丧葬习俗。对回族、维吾尔族等一些习惯土葬的少数民族，国家划拨专用土地，建立公墓，并设立专门为这些少数民族服务的殡葬服务部门。现在，全国凡有回族等习惯实行土葬的少数民族居住的大、中、小城市，都建有公墓。同样，对藏族实行的天葬、土葬、水葬，国家也给予保护和尊重。
The forms of burial vary among China's ethnic minorities, including cremation, inhumation, "water burial" and "sky burial" (exposure burial). The government respects minority peoples' burial customs, and has allotted land for cemeteries and established burial services departments specially for Hui, Uygur and other minority peoples that have the tradition of inhumation. Throughout the country, cemeteries can be found in large, medium and small cities where Hui and other minority peoples preferring inhumation live. The burial custom of Tibetans has also been respected; they can choose whatever form of burial they prefer--"sky burial", inhumation or "water burial".
中国各少数民族年节习俗丰富多彩。如：藏族的藏历新年、“雪顿节”，回、维吾尔等民族的“开斋节”、“古尔邦节”，蒙古族的“那达慕”，傣族的“泼水节”，彝族的“火把节”，等等。各少数民族自由地按本民族的传统习惯欢度节日，国家按照各少数民族年节习惯安排假日，并供应节日特殊食品。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
Ethnic minorities have rich traditions of festivals, including the New Year and Shoton (Yogurt) Festival of the Tibetan people, the Fast-breaking and Corban festivals of the Hui and Uygur peoples, the Nadam Fair of the Mongolian people, the Water Sprinkling Festival of the Dai people and the Torch Festival of the Yi people. The various ethnic minority groups in China are free to celebrate their own traditional festivals, and the state gives them holidays and supplies special food for the holidays.
保护少数民族文化遗产
Preservation of the Cultural Heritage of Ethnic Minorities
为使各少数民族传统文化得到保护，国家有计划地组织对各少数民族的文化遗产进行搜集、整理、翻译和出版工作，保护少数民族的名胜古迹、珍贵文物和其他重要历史文化遗产。
To preserve the traditional cultures of the ethnic minorities, the state has formulated plans or organized specialists for work involving the collecting, editing, translating and publishing of their cultural heritage and the protecting of their famous historical monuments, scenic spots, rare cultural relics and other important items of the historical and cultural heritage.
国家成立了全国少数民族古籍整理出版规划小组和办公室，组织和领导全国少数民族古籍整理工作。全国现有25个省、自治区、直辖市，130个自治州、地、盟建立了民族古籍整理与研究机构，民族院校也建有古籍整理与研究机构。截至1998年，已搜集少数民族古籍12万余种，整理11万余种，出版古籍书籍5000余种。国家组织3000多名专家学者，完成了关于少数民族的五种丛书的编辑出版工作，包括中国少数民族简史、少数民族语言简志、民族自治地方概况等丛书400多种，9000多万字。现在，中国55个少数民族都各自有了一部文字记载的简史。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
A national planning section and office have been established by the state to organize the editing and publishing of ancient books of ethnic minorities. Currently, about 25 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities, 130 autonomous prefectures, prefectures and leagues and other minority areas, and some ethnic colleges and schools have established institutions for the same purpose. By the end of 1998, more than 120,000 titles of ethnic minorities' ancient books have been collected, of which, over 110,000 have been edited and 5,000 published. More than 3,000 experts and scholars organized by the state have finished the editing and publishing of five series on ethnic minority issues, including A Brief History of China's Ethnic Minorities, Brief Records of Ethnic Minorities' Languages, and A General Survey of Autonomous Ethnic Minority Areas, comprising over 400 titles and 90 million words. Now each of the 55 minority ethnic groups has a brief written history.
中国政府设立了中国少数民族三大英雄史诗《格萨尔》（藏族民间说唱体长篇英雄史诗）、《江格尔》（蒙古族著名的英雄史诗）、《玛纳斯》（柯尔克孜族著名的传记性史诗）专门工作机构，有计划有组织地进行收集、整理、翻译、研究工作。出版了包括少数民族文字、汉文和多种外国文字版本的三大史诗以及一些研究专著，仅关于《格萨尔》就出版了300多万字的大型学术资料汇编《格萨尔集成》，涌现出一批卓有成就的“格学”研究专家。近年来，国家拨付了以千万元计的巨额资金支持校勘出版共计150部的传统藏学的百科全书《中华大藏经》。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The Chinese government has set up special institutions for the collection, editing, translation and research of the three major epics of ethnic minorities: Gesar of the Tibetan, Jianggar of the Mongolians and Manas of the Kirgiz. The three epics and treatises concerning them have been published in the appropriate ethnic minority languages, Chinese and foreign languages. The publishing of the Corpus of Gesar Studies in more than three million words brought many distinguished Gesar studies experts to the fore. In recent years, the state has earmarked tens of millions of yuan for the publishing of Zhonghua Dazang Jing, an encyclopedia of Tibetan studies in 150 volumes.
从五十年代初开始，中国各级政府以及文化艺术部门组织了数以万计的人类学、社会学、民族学专家和文学艺术工作者，深入到少数民族聚居地区，抢救、搜集流传在民间的传统文化艺术。八十年代初，中国政府又投入大量资金和人力物力，搜集整理各民族民间文艺资料，编纂了《中国民间歌曲集成》、《中国民族民间器乐曲集成》、《中国民间故事集成》、《中国民间谚语集成》等包括各民族文学、音乐、舞蹈诸门类的十大文艺集成，共计整理出版310卷，全部出齐约450卷，总计约4．5亿字。
Beginning in the early 1950s, governments at various levels and culture and arts departments have organized tens of thousands of experts in anthropology, sociology and ethnology, and writers and artists to collect and preserve traditional folk cultures and arts in regions where minority peoples live. At the beginning of the 1980s, the Chinese government put in much capital and efforts into the collection and editing of the folk cultural and arts materials of the minority peoples. The compilation of ten collections of literature, music and dance of minority peoples, comprising 450 volumes in 450 million words, including the Collection of Chinese Folk Songs, Collection of Folk Instrument Tunes of China's Ethnic Minorities, Collection of Chinese Folk Tales, and Collection of Chinese Folk Proverbs have been completed, and 310 volumes have already been published.
近十年来，国家投入巨资对西藏拉萨的哲蚌寺、色拉寺、甘丹寺，青海的塔尔寺，新疆的克孜尔千佛洞等大批国家重点文物古迹进行了维修。特别是1989年至1994年，国家投入5300万元、黄金1000公斤，对著名的布达拉宫进行了维修。各地还建立了一些博物馆、文化馆，搜集、保护少数民族文物。投资近亿元的西藏博物馆已建成使用。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
In addition, in the past decade the state has invested a great deal of capital in maintaining cultural relics and historical sites, including the Drepung, Sera and Gandan monasteries in the Tibetan capital Lhasa, the Kumbum Monastery in Qinghai Province and the Kilzil Thousand-Buddha Cave in Xinjiang. Between 1989 and 1994, the state invested 53 million yuan and 1,000 kg of gold in repairing the famous Potala Palace in Lhasa. In addition, museums and cultural centers have been established in various places for the collection and preservation of cultural relics of ethnic minorities. Among them, the Tibet Museum cost nearly 100 million yuan to construct.
繁荣少数民族文化艺术事业
Promoting Ethnic Minorities' Cultural and Arts Undertakings
国家和有关部门通过组建少数民族文艺团体、艺术院校、文化馆和群众艺术馆等措施，大力培养少数民族文艺人才，繁荣少数民族文艺创作，发展少数民族文化艺术事业。五十年代初，在北京建立了国家级的中央民族歌舞团，由各民族演员组成，创作各少数民族歌舞节目，到全国各地演出，还数十次把中国少数民族文艺节目带到世界各国演出。到目前为止，全国民族自治地方有各类艺术表演团体534个，艺术表演场所194处，图书馆661个，群众艺术馆82个，文化馆679个，文化站7318个，博物馆155个。全国五个民族自治区和云南、贵州、吉林等省有24所高等和中等艺术院校，专门培养少数民族艺术人才。
The state and relevant departments devote great efforts to fostering literary and artistic talent among the minority peoples, and promoting the creation of literature and art by setting up literature and art organizations, art institutes and schools, cultural centers and mass art centers. In the early 1950s, the national-level Central Ethnic Song and Dance Ensemble was established in Beijing. It is composed of performers from various ethnic groups, and performs ethnic songs and dances of its own creation both in China and abroad. To date, in autonomous areas, there are 534 art troupes, 194 sites for art performances, 661 libraries, 82 mass art centers, 679 cultural centers, 7,318 culture-dissemination stations and 155 museums. Furthermore, there are 24 art colleges and secondary-level art schools in the five autonomous regions and Yunnan, Guizhou and Jilin provinces specially for fostering artistically talented people among China's ethnic minorities.
曾经濒于灭绝的维吾尔族巨大音乐经典套曲“十二木卡姆”，由四十年代末仅有两三个高龄艺人能够较完整地演唱发展到成立新疆木卡姆艺术团、木卡姆研究室，广泛演唱，得到发扬光大。已有500多年历史的藏戏不仅得到保护和发扬，而且在每年的雪顿节期间与其他歌舞、话剧相映生辉，使雪顿节成为藏民族欢乐喜庆的综合艺术节。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The "Twelve Mukams" opera, a classical musical treasure of the Uygur people, which was on the verge of being lost, has been preserved. At the end of the 1940s, only two or three elderly musicians could sing it completely. But now it is flourishing, since the Mukam Art Troupe and Mukam Research Office have been established in Xinjiang. In addition, Tibetan opera, which has a history of over 500 years, is well preserved and flourishing. Every year, it is included in the Shoton Festival, together with other singing, dancing and drama performances.
国家定期举办少数民族音乐、舞蹈、戏剧“孔雀奖”评比和少数民族题材的电影、电视、文学“骏马奖”评选。国家自1992年开始在少数民族聚居的广西、云南、西藏、新疆、内蒙古、黑龙江、吉林等九个省、自治区实施“全国万里边疆文化长廊建设”工程。几年来，各级政府投入大量资金，建成了一批公共文化基础设施，改善和丰富了当地的文化生活，受益的边疆各族人民群众达1000多万人。
The state regularly conducts the competition for the "Peacock Award" for ethnic minorities' music, dance and drama and the "Stallion Award" for films, television programs and literary works dealing with minority peoples. Beginning in 1992, the state started to carry out the "Long Cultural Corridor Construction in the Nation's Border Areas" projects in nine autonomous regions and provinces where minority peoples are concentrated, including Guangxi, Yunnan, Tibet, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang and Jilin. In the past few years, governments at various levels have also put large amounts of funds into the construction of many cultural infrastructure facilities, which have improved and enriched the cultural life of more than ten million ethnic minority people.
近十多年来，少数民族文化艺术团体扩大对外交流，活跃在国际舞台上，从中央到地方已有100多个少数民族艺术团体走向世界。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
In the past decade or more, ethnic minority culture and art troupes have extended their exchanges with the outside world, and over 100 of them, national and local, have performed in other countries and regions.
少数民族作家队伍不断壮大，一大批少数民族作家茁壮成长，创作了大量文学作品。中国作家协会少数民族会员的比例已超过10%，人数近600人。
The ranks of ethnic minority writers are continuously growing. A large number of such writers have come to the fore and created a great number of literary works. Nearly 600 writers belonging to ethnic minorities are members of the Chinese Writers' Association, constituting more than 10 percent.
少数民族工艺美术异彩纷呈。藏族壁画艺术不断充实，增加了表现藏族发展史和藏族人民新生活的内容。藏族卷轴画唐卡艺术得到保护。维吾尔族、蒙古族的地毯、壁挂，从民族地区风行到全中国，外销世界上许多国家和地区。布依、苗、瑶、仡佬等民族的蜡染，而今更为流行，且图案、花样、品种都有很大发展。土家、壮、傣、黎、侗等民族的织锦技艺，已从过去的一家一户的小型作业发展到织锦工艺厂，生产规模不断扩大。
The arts and handicrafts of minority peoples are a splendid legacy. The mural art of the Tibetans is continuously enriched with contents depicting the development history of the Tibetan ethnic group and the new lives of the Tibetan people. The Tibetan art of scroll painting, or Tangka, is well preserved. The carpets and wall hangings made by the Uygur and Mongolian peoples are very popular on the Chinese and overseas markets. The wax-printing art of the Bouyei, Miao, Yao and Gelo ethnic groups is growing in popularity, with great improvement in designs, patterns and varieties. And the brocade technique of the Tujia, Zhuang, Dai, Li and Dong ethnic groups has developed from small-scale family workshops to today's brocade mills, whose production scale has been on the increase.
保护发展少数民族传统医药
Preserving and Developing the Traditional Medicine of Ethnic Minorities
国家大力培养少数民族医药人才，在西藏、内蒙古、新疆等地相继成立了藏医、蒙医、维吾尔医高等院校，已培养民族医药人员2531人。其中西藏藏医学院建立近十年来，共培养各类藏医药人才500多人。目前，全国共有民族医院127所，其中藏医院52所，蒙医院41所，维吾尔医院26所，其他民族医院8所。国家积极扶持对少数民族医药的开发和应用。1992年，国家确定了蒙药、藏药、维吾尔药的制剂中心，将传统医药与现代研制技术相结合，已经生产了十几种剂型，上百种藏药、蒙药、维吾尔药品种。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The state has made great efforts to foster medical specialists for minority peoples. It has established medical colleges and universities of Tibetan, Mongolian and Uygur medicine in the Tibet, Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang autonomous regions, respectively, which have trained 2,531 specialists. Of them, more than 500 have been trained by the Tibet College of Tibetan Medicine, founded nearly ten years ago. Nowadays, there are 127 hospitals of ethnic minority medicine all over the country, of which, 52 are Tibetan medicine hospitals, 41 are Mongolian medicine hospitals, 26 are Uygur medicine hospitals and eight specialize in the traditional medicine of other minority groups. Also, the state has provided active support for the development and application of ethnic minority traditional medicine. In 1992, the state gave permission for the setting up of centers for making of Mongolian, Tibetan and Uygur pharmaceutical preparations. They manufacture more than ten kinds of pharmaceutical preparations and over 100 kinds of traditional medicines with the combination of traditional and modern expertise.
发展少数民族传统体育运动
Developing the Traditional Sports of Ethnic Minorities
中国少数民族传统体育运动源于广大少数民族群众的生活，内容丰富，形式多样，历史悠久，特点鲜明，不仅具有高度的技巧，而且常常伴有歌舞、音乐，如赛马、射箭、马上游戏“叼羊”、摔跤、荡秋千、跳板、赛龙舟、登山等等。中国各少数民族自治地方都建立了体育工作机构，积极培养少数民族体育人才，开展民族传统体育和现代体育活动，提高少数民族的健康水平。现已挖掘、搜集、整理出少数民族传统体育项目290多个。1953年，在天津举办了全国首次民族传统体育表演及竞赛大会，即第一届全国少数民族传统体育运动会。1982年后，中国每四年举办一次全国少数民族传统体育运动会。第六届全国少数民族传统体育运动会于1999年9月在北京举行，同时在西藏自治区首府拉萨设立分赛场。全国已有25个省、自治区、直辖市每四年举办一次少数民族传统体育运动会。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
The traditional sports of ethnic minorities originate from the daily life of the people and are rich in content and form, and have distinct characteristics and a long history. They call for skill of a high order, and most of them are accompanied with music, or singing and dancing. They include horse racing, archery, sheep-chasing on horseback, wrestling, swinging, springboard jumping, dragon-boat racing and mountaineering. Physical culture and sports institutions have been established in the various autonomous areas to train people in ethnic sports, develop traditional ethnic and modern sports activities and improve the health of minority peoples. To date, more than 290 kinds of traditional ethnic sports have been revived. In 1953, the first traditional ethnic sports show and competition was held in Tianjin, known as the First National Traditional Ethnic Minority Sports Meet. Beginning in 1982, such meets have been held every four years, and the sixth one was held in Beijing in September 1999, with some contests held in Lhasa, the capital of the Tibet Autonomous Region. Throughout the country, there are 25 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities that hold traditional ethnic minority sports meets every four years.
中华人民共和国的五十年实践证明，中国的民族政策是成功的，走出了一条符合自己国情的解决民族问题和实现各民族共同发展的正确道路。同时，中国政府也清楚地看到，由于历史和自然地理等因素的制约和影响，中国中西部少数民族较为集中的地区与东部沿海地区相比，在发展上还存在着较大差距，有部分少数民族地区人民还未解决温饱问题，有些地区因生产条件较差严重影响持续发展。这些问题已经引起中国政府的高度重视，并正在采取措施加以解决。中国政府相信，随着国家改革开放和现代化建设事业的发展，中国各民族必将得到更快、更好的发展，在即将到来的二十一世纪，中国各民族平等、团结、互助的关系必将得到进一步巩固和发展。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
Fifty years of experience has proved that the policies toward ethnic minorities of the People's Republic of China are successful ones. China has blazed a correct way for handling ethnic problems and realizing the common prosperity of the various ethnic groups in conformity with China's reality. In the meantime, however, the Chinese government is well aware of the fact that, due to the restrictions and influences of history, physical geography and other factors, central and western China, where most ethnic minority people live, lag far behind the eastern coastal areas in development. In some ethnic minority areas, the people are inadequately fed and clothed, and while in some other areas sustained development has been adversely affected by poor production conditions. The Chinese government attaches great importance to these problems, and is taking measures to solve them. The Chinese government is convinced that, as the reform, opening-up and modernization drive develop, the various ethnic groups of China will develop in a still more rapid and healthy way, and the relations between ethnic groups marked by equality, unity and mutual help are certain to be further consolidated and developed in the coming 21st century.
注：
Notes:
①中国少数民族人口情况，参见江平主编《中国民族问题理论和实践》，第492—496页，中共中央党校出版社1994年版。
(1) For the population of China's ethnic minorities, see Theory and Practice of China's Ethnic Problems, compiled by Jiang Ping, Central Party School Press, 1994, pp.492-496
②中国少数民族分布情况，参见吴仕民主编《民族问题概论》，第383—385页，四川人民出版社1997年版。
(2) For the distribution of China's ethnic minorities, see An Outline of Ethnic Problems, compiled by Wu Shimin, Sichuan People's Publishing House, 1997, pp. 383-385.
③中国统一多民族国家的形成，参见戴逸《中国民族边疆史研究》和张传玺《中国古代国家的历史特征》两文，载《中外历史问题八人谈》，中共中央党校出版社1998年版。
(3) For the formation of China as a united multi-ethnic country, see "A Study of the History of China's Ethnic Groups and Border Areas" by Dai Yi and "Historical Characteristics of Ancient States in China" by Zhang Chuanxu in the Eight Persons' Forum on the Historical Problems of China and Other Countries, Central Party School Press, 1998.
④相关法律条文，参见《中华人民共和国民族政策法规选编》，中国民航出版社1997版。
(4) For relevant laws, see A Selection of Laws and Regulations on Ethnic Policies of the People's Republic of China, China Civil Aviation Press, 1997.
⑤1949年前中国少数民族社会状况，参见杨侯第主编《中国少数民族人权述要》，北京大学出版社1997年版。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂
(5) For social conditions of China's ethnic minorities before 1949, see A Brief Introduction to the Human Rights of China's Ethnic Minorities, compiled by Yang Houdi, Beijing University Press, 1997.
⑥1959年前西藏社会历史情况，参见《中国西藏社会历史资料》，五洲传播出版社1994年版。
(6) For social and historical conditions of Tibet before 1959, see Social and Historical Materials Concerning China's Tibet, China Intercontinental Press, 1994.
⑦中国少数民族自治地方分布情况，参见吴仕民主编《民族问题概论》第386—390页。
(7) For the distribution of China's autonomous ethnic minority areas, see An Outline of Ethnic Problems, compiled by Wu Shimin, pp. 386-390.
⑧参见《中华人民共和国1998年国民经济和社会发展统计公报》，外文出版社1999年版。
(8) See the 1998 Statistics Bulletin of the National Economic and Social Development of the People's Republic of China, Foreign Languages Press, 1999.
⑨参见新疆维吾尔自治区人民政府新闻办公室编《中国新疆》，五洲传播出版社1999年版。
(9) See China's The Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, compiled by the Information Office of the People's Government of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China Intercontinenal Press, 1999.
⑩参见宁夏回族自治区人民政府新闻办公室编《中国宁夏回族自治区》，五洲传播出版社1998年版。
(10) See The Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region of China, compiled by the Information Office of the People's Government of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China Intercontinental Press, 1998.
○11参见广西壮族自治区人民政府新闻办公室编《中国广西壮族自治区》，五洲传播出版社1998年版。
(11) See The Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of China, compiled by the Information Office of the People's Government of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China Intercontinental Press, 1998.
