西藏的主权归属与人权状况

Tibet -- Its Ownership And Human Rights Situation

中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室

Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China

一九九二年九月·北京

September 1992, Beijing

目　录

Contents

前言

Preface

一、 西藏的主权归属

I. Ownership of Tibet

二、 所谓“西藏独立”的由来   

II. Origins of So-called 'Tibetan Independence'

三、 达赖集团的分裂活动和中央政府的政策

III. The Dalai Clique's Separatist Activities and The Central Government's Policy

四、 旧西藏的封建农奴制

IV. Feudal Serfdom in Old Tibet

五、 人民获得了人身自由    

V. The People Gain Personal Freedom

六、 人民享有的政治权利   

VI. The People Enjoy Political Rights

七、 经济的发展和人民生活的改善  

VII. Economic Development and Improvement of Living Standards

八、 宗教信仰自由   

VIII. Freedom of Religious Belief

九、 教育和文化的发展   

IX. Development of Education and Culture

十、 人民健康和人口发展状况  

X. People's Health and Demographic Growth

十一、 生存环境的保护

XI. Protection of Living Environment

十二、 国家对西藏发展的特殊支持

XII. Special State Aid for Tibet's Development

前　言　　

Preface

西藏曾经被认为是一个神秘的地区，现在她早已揭去神秘的面纱，呈现在世界面前。她正经历着从极端落后的中世纪状况逐步走向现代化的天翻地覆的变化。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Once regarded as a mysterious region, Tibet has long thrown off its veil to reveal itself to the world. She is now experiencing earth-shaking changes in a shift from Medieval extreme backwardness to modernization.

　　但是世人对这一地区的实际情况仍然知之甚少。于是一些曾经侵略或试图侵略她的人高喊，她受到了侵略；一些曾经完全剥夺了这一地区人民人身自由的人呼叫，那里人民的人权受到了侵犯。谣言、歪曲、猜疑、误解……织成一层烟雾又笼罩着这个地区。

However, the world still knows very little about real developments in this region. So those who once committed or attempted aggression against her yell at the top of their voices that Tibet is being invaded; others who once deprived the people of this region of all personal freedom shout that the human rights of the people there are being infringed. Rumors, distortion, suspicion, misunderstanding...all combine to form a layer of mist to envelop this region.

　　要了解这个地区的真实情况，还是要看事实。

In order to know the situation there, it is imperative to look at the facts.

　　因此，最好的办法就是把事实摆出来。

Therefore, the best course of action is to present them.

一、西藏的主权归属

I. Ownership of Tibet

　　西藏在中国的西南部。居住在这里的藏族先民，远在公元前就与生活在中原的汉族有联系。以后，经过漫长的岁月，西藏高原上分散的众多部落逐渐统一起来，成为现在的藏族。到唐朝（公元618—907年），藏汉双方通过王室间的联姻、会盟，在政治上形成了团结友好的亲谊关系，在经济和文化上建立了密切的联系，为最终建立统一的国家奠定了深厚的基础。在西藏自治区首府拉萨的布达拉宫，至今一直供奉着公元641年唐朝嫁给藏族吐蕃王的文成公主的塑像。大昭寺前的广场上还矗立着公元823年为双方会盟建立的“唐蕃会盟碑”。碑文记载，“舅甥二主，商议社稷如一，结立大和盟约，永无渝替!神人俱以证知，世世代代，使其称赞。”微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Tibet is located in southwest China. The ancestors of the Tibetan race who lived there struck up links with the Han in the Central Plains long before the Christian era. Later, over a long period of years, the numerous tribes scattered on the Tibet Plateau became unified to form the present Tibetan race. By the Tang Dynasty (618-907), the Tibetans and Hans had, through marriage between royal families and meetings leading to alliances, cemented political and kinship ties of unity and political friendship and formed close economic and cultural relations, laying a solid foundation for the ultimate founding of a unified nation. In Lhasa, the capital of the Tibet Autonomous Region, the statue of the Tang Princess Wen Cheng, who married the Tubo tsampo, king of Tibet, in 641, is still enshrined and worshiped in the Potala Palace. The Tang-Tubo Alliance Monument marking the meeting for this purpose between Tang and Tubo erected in 823 still stands in the square in front of the Jokhang Monastery. The monument inscription reads in part, "The two sovereigns, uncle and nephew, having come to agreement that their territories be united as one, have signed this alliance of great peace to last for eternity! May God and humanity bear witness thereto so that it may be praised from generation to generation."

　　十三世纪中叶，西藏正式归入中国元朝版图。自此之后，尽管中国经历了几代王朝的兴替，多次更换过中央政权，但西藏一直处于中央政权的管辖之下。

In the mid-13th century, Tibet was officially incorporated into the territory of China's Yuan Dynasty. Since then, although China experienced several dynastic changes, Tibet has remained under the jurisdiction of the central government of China.

　　元朝（公元1271—1368年）

Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368)

　　十三世纪初，蒙古族领袖成吉思汗在中国北部建立蒙古汗国。1247年，西藏宗教界领袖萨迦班智达·贡嘎坚赞同蒙古皇子阔端在凉州（今中国甘肃武威）议定了西藏归顺的条件，其中包括呈献图册，交纳贡物，接受派官设治。1629年成书的《萨迦世系史》记载着当时萨迦班智达写给西藏各地僧俗首领的信中关于必须归顺和接受所规定的地方行政制度的内容。1271年，蒙古汗政权定国号为元，并于1279年统一了全中国，创建了继汉（公元前206—公元220年）、唐王朝之后中国版图内各地区、各民族大统一的中央政权，西藏成为中国元朝中央政府直接治理下的一个行政区域。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In the early 13th century, Genghis Khan, leader of the Mongols, established the Mongol Khanate in north China. In 1247 Sagya Pandit Gonggar Gyamcan, religious leader of Tibet, met the Mongol Prince Gotan at Liangzhou (present-day Wuwei of Gansu, China) and decided on terms for Tibetan submission to the Mongols, including presentation of map and census books, payment of tributes, and the acceptance of rule by appointed officials. The Tibetan work Sagya Genealogy written in 1629 includes Sagya Pandit's letter to the religious and secular leaders in the various parts of Tibet that they must pledge allegiance to the Mongols and accept the regional administrative system prescribed for Tibet. The regime of the Mongol Khanate changed its title to Yuan in 1271 and unified the whole of China in 1279, establishing a central government, which, following the Han (206 BC-220) and Tang dynasties, achieved great unification of various regions and races within the domain of China. Tibet became an administrative region directly under the administration of the central government of China's Yuan Dynasty.

　　元朝皇帝设置了宣政院，直接管理西藏地区军政要务。这一机构的人员选用，由皇帝决定，它的报告直接送给皇帝。掌握宣政院实权的是“院使”，一般由中央政府总理全国政务的右丞相兼领。

The Yuan emperor established the Xuanzheng Yuan or Ministry for the Spread of Governance to directly handle important military and political affairs of the Tibet region. Choice of its members lay with the emperor and its reports were submitted directly to the monarch. Yuanshi, the chief minister having real authority in the Xuanzheng Yuan, was a post generally held concurrently by the right-hand prime minister of the central government who was in charge of the whole nation's governmental affairs.

　　在西藏地区成立了地方军政机构，名为“宣慰使司都元帅府”，隶属于宣政院。宣慰使司下面还辖有管理民政的十三个万户府、千户所等。所有机构和官职的名称都是元朝中央规定的。元朝在西藏驻有军队，并由一位王子及其后裔率军驻守西藏地区的东部边缘，逢西藏有事，即可就近入藏，以尽镇戍边疆的职责。1290年，一名万户长叛乱，元朝中央派遣这位王子率军入藏平息。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In the Tibetan region, local military and administrative organs were set up under the name of the High Pacification Commissioner's Office, which was under the Xuanzheng Yuan. Under the jurisdiction of this office were 13 wanhu offices (myriarchies each in command of 10,000 households) and more qianhu offices (chiliarchies each in command of 1,000 households) handling civil administration. The names of these organizations and official posts were decided by the central government of the Yuan Dynasty. It also had troops stationed in Tibet. A royal prince and his descendents were stationed on the eastern border of Tibet at the head of an army. When Tibet was enmeshed in trouble, the prince could enter the area from nearby garrison to perform his duty of guarding the security of the border region. In 1290, when the head of a wanhu office rose in rebellion, the central government of the Yuan Dynasty dispatched the prince into Tibet at the head of his army to put it down.

　　元朝中央派官员入藏，按照户口多寡，地形险易，出产丰啬，设立大小驿站，联成交通线，由西藏通往大都（今北京市）。

The central government of the Yuan Dynasty sent officials into Tibet to set up post stations, whose size varied according to the local population, topography and resources. These post stations were linked up in a communication line extending from Tibet up to Dadu (present-day Beijing).

　　元朝中央还派官员在西藏进行人口调查，确定各万户属下可支应差役的人口数，决定沿驿路各地必须供给的力役、物资、运畜。1268年、1287年、1334年进行了三次人口调查。藏文史书《汉藏史集》中有关于这三次调查的详细记载。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The central government of the Yuan Dynasty also dispatched officials into Tibet to conduct censuses, establish the number of corvee laborers in areas under various wanhu offices and decide the number of corvee laborers, provisions and animal transport the areas along the post route had to supply. Such censuses were conducted three times in Tibet, in 1268, 1287 and 1334. The Tibetan work History From the Han and Tibetan Sources records them in detail.

　　明朝（公元1368—1644年）

Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)

　　1368年明王朝接替元王朝，继承了治理西藏的权力。

In 1368 the Ming Dynasty replaced the Yuan Dynasty in China, and inherited the right to rule Tibet.

　　明朝中央对元代的官职名称、品秩，大都保留原状。在今西藏中部和东部分别设立“乌思藏行都指挥使司”与“朵甘行都指挥使司”，隶属于陕西行都指挥使司，相当于行省级军区机构，兼理民政。西藏西部阿里另设置“俄力思军民元帅府”。这些机构的负责官员均由中央任命。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The central government of the Ming Dynasty retained most of the titles and ranks of official positions instituted during the Yuan Dynasty. In the central and eastern parts of present-day Tibet, the Dbus-Gtsang Itinerant High Commandery and the Mdo-khams Itinerant High Commandery were set up respectively. Equivalent to provincial-level military organs, they operated under the Shaanxi Itinerant High Commandery and, at the same time, handled civil administration. In Ngari in west Tibet, the E-Li-Si Army-Civilian Marshal Office was instituted. Leading officials of these organs were all appointed by the central government.

　　明朝第三个皇帝明成祖（1403—1424年在位），以西藏佛教和政治合为一体，大小派别各踞一方，为有利于治理，给西藏各地宗教领袖封以“法王”、“王”、“灌顶国师”等名号。王位的继承必须经皇帝批准，遣使册封，新王才能即位。按照朝廷的规定，每年元旦，王须遣使或亲自来京参加朝贺典礼，呈递贺表贡物。对于入贡期限、来京人数、所取路途、沿途各地供应，都有具体规定。至今西藏有的喇嘛寺内还保存着当年必须朝拜的皇帝万岁牌。

The third emperor of the Ming Dynasty, Chengzu (reigned 1403-1424) saw the advantage of combined Buddhist religious and political power in Tibet and rivalry between sects occupying different areas. So he conferred honorific titles on religious leaders in various parts of Tibet such as the "prince of Dharma," "prince" and "national master in Tantrism." Succession to such princeship needed the approval of the emperor, who would send an envoy to confer the official title on each new prince. Only then could the new prince assume his role. According to the stipulations of the Ming court, the prince had to dispatch his envoy or come in person to the capital to participate in the New Year's Day celebration each year and present his memorial of congratulation and tribute. The Ming court had detailed stipulations that limited the dates for presenting tributes, the number of personnel allowed in the capital, the route to be taken, and also provisions to be supplied by local authorities along the route. The tablets wishing longevity to the emperors before which the prayers had to prostrate themselves are still kept in some of the monasteries in Tibet.

　　达赖喇嘛和班禅喇嘛两大活佛系统属于藏传佛教格鲁派。格鲁派在明代兴起，三世达赖喇嘛本是格鲁派的一个寺院的住持。明朝中央特别开例，准予他入贡，1587年封赐他以“朵儿只唱”名号。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Lama are the two leading incarnation hierarchies of the Gelug Sect of Tibetan Buddhism. The Gelug Sect rose during the Ming Dynasty, and the 3rd Dalai Lama was the abbot of one of the sect's monasteries. The central government of the Ming Dynasty showed him special favor by allowing him to pay tribute. In 1587 he was granted the title of Dorjichang or Vajradhara Dalai Lama.

　　西藏地方官员犯法，亦由中央惩处。

Any official of the Tibetan local government who offended the law was punished by the central government.

　　清朝（公元1644—1911年）

Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)

　　1644年，清王朝取代了明王朝，进一步加强了对西藏的治理。清朝皇帝于1653年、1713年分别册封五世达赖喇嘛和五世班禅喇嘛，自此正式确定了达赖喇嘛和班禅额尔德尼的封号，以及他们在西藏的政治和宗教地位。达赖喇嘛在拉萨统治西藏的大部分地区，班禅额尔德尼在日喀则统治西藏的另一部分地区。1719年，清政府派军队进入西藏，驱逐盘踞拉萨三年之久的准噶尔部，着手改订西藏的行政体制。清朝皇帝封西康地区的一个青年活佛为七世达赖喇嘛，护送入藏；任命四名有功有名望的藏官为“噶伦”，管理西藏政务。1727年，设驻藏大臣，代表中央监督西藏地方行政，西藏与四川、云南、青海的界线，也于此时派员正式勘定。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

When the Qing Dynasty replaced the Ming Dynasty in 1644, it further strengthened administration over Tibet. In 1653 and 1713, the Qing emperors granted honorific titles to the 5th Dalai Lama and the 5th Bainqen Lama, henceforth officially establishing the titles of the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni and their political and religious status in Tibet. The Dalai Lama ruled the bulk of areas from Lhasa while the Bainqen Erdeni ruled the remaining area of Tibet from Xigaze. In 1719, Qing government troops were sent into Tibet to dispel the Zungar forces which had been entrenched in Lhasa for three years, and set out to reform Tibet's administrative system. The Qing emperor made a young Living Buddha of the Xikang area the 7th Dalai Lama and had him escorted into Tibet, and appointed four Tibetan officials renowned for meritorious service "Galoins" to handle Tibet's political affairs. From 1727, High commissioners were stationed in Tibet to supervise local administration on behalf of the central authorities. Officials were also assigned about this time to survey and delimit the borders between Tibet (i.e. Xizang) and Sichuan, Yunnan and Qinghai.

　　为了完善西藏行政机构的职能，清朝多次颁下“章程”，整顿改革旧的制度，建立新的制度。1793年，颁布了《钦定藏内善后章程》，共二十九条。章程的主要内容有：

In order to perfect Tibet's administrative organizations, the Qing Dynasty on many occasions enacted "regulations" to rectify and reform old systems and establish new ones. The Authorized Regulations for the Better Governing of Tibet, promulgated in 1793, had 29 articles. Their major purport was:

　　清政府掌握确定西藏各大活佛包括达赖喇嘛、班禅额尔德尼去世后转世灵童的大权。每逢一代达赖喇嘛、班禅额尔德尼和西藏各大转世活佛的转世灵童觅到时，即将灵童姓名缮写在签上，纳入中央颁发的金瓶，由驻藏大臣会集有关大活佛，掣签确定（金瓶和签现在仍保存在拉萨）。转世灵童的剃发、取法名、选定授戒的师傅和授经的师傅，也都须经过驻藏大臣奏报朝廷核准。当举行达赖喇嘛、班禅额尔德尼的坐床和亲政典礼时，中央派大员亲临监视。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The Qing government holds the power to confirm the reincarnation of all deceased high Living Buddhas of Tibet including the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni. When the reincarnate boy has been found, his name will be written on a lot, which shall be put into a gold urn bestowed by the central government. The high commissioners will bring together appropriate high-ranking Living Buddhas to determine the authenticity of the reincarnate boy by drawing lots from the gold urn. (Both the gold urn and lots are still preserved in Lhasa.) The tonsure of the incarnate Living Buddha, his religious name, the choice of the master to initiate him into monkhood and his sutra instructor all have to be reported by the high commissioners to the imperial court for examination and approval. The central government will send high officials to supervise in person the installation ceremony for the new Dalai Lama and the new Bainqen Erdeni and also the ceremony for their taking over reins of government at coming of age.

　　驻藏大臣代表中央政府督办藏内事务，地位与达赖喇嘛、班禅额尔德尼平等。噶伦以下（包括噶伦）都是属员。

The high commissioners will supervise the handling of Tibetan affairs on behalf of the central government, enjoying the equal standing with the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni. All the Galoins and those below them are subordinates.

　　对西藏文武官员确定品级、名额和升补手续。最高一级藏族官员有噶伦四名、代本六名，由中央任命。噶伦、代本的年俸由中央发给。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The ranks and numbers of Tibetan civil and military officials, and procedures for their promotion and replacement are stipulated. The highest-Ranking Tibetan officials including four Galoins and six Deboins are to be appointed by the central government. The annual salaries of the Galoins and Deboins will be paid by the central government.

　　在西藏成立正规藏军，名额3000人，规定了军官等级、人数，军饷补给来源，武器配备，驻防地点。另外，从内地调驻西藏各地官兵1400多名。藏汉军队统由中央派驻的官员管辖。

A regular army of 3,000 will be organized in Tibet. The regulations stipulate ranks and numbers of military officials, the source of troop pay and provisions, plus weaponry and places where troops are to be stationed. In addition, some 1,400 troops will be transferred from the interior to stations in various localities of Tibet. Both Tibetan and Han troops are put under the command of officers sent by the central government.

　　决定在西藏照内地之例，设立铸钱局，铸造官钱行使，银币正面背面分别用汉藏文字铸“乾隆宝藏”字样。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

A mint will be set up in Tibet along the lines established by those in the interior to make official money for circulation. On the two sides of the silver coinage the words "Qianlong Treasure" will be cast in the Han Chinese and Tibetan.

　　达赖喇嘛、班禅额尔德尼每年的财务收支，由驻藏大臣稽查总核。

The annual financial receipts and expenditures of the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni will be subject to checking by the high commissioners.

　　西藏差役由全社会平均负担。贵族和大寺庙中实有劳绩可受优待免除差役者，须经过驻藏大臣及达赖喇嘛核准发给执照。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Tibet's taxation and corvee labor will be born by the whole society on an equal footing. Only those nobles and large monasteries who have made real contributions will enjoy preferential treatment and exemptions, but these must be examined and approved by the high commissioners and the Dalai Lama, who will issue them licences for this purpose.

　　对来西藏贸易的尼泊尔、克什米尔商人要进行登记，造具名册，呈报驻藏大臣备案，由负责官员签发路证。凡外人要求到拉萨者，须听候驻藏大臣衙门审批。藏人出境至尼泊尔等地，由驻藏大臣签发路证，规定往返日期。

Merchants from Nepal and Kashmir wanting to do business in Tibet must register. The registration book must be filed with the high commissioners for record. The appropriate officials will issue laissez-passers to them. Any foreigner applying to enter Lhasa must be examined for approval by the High Commissioner's Office. The high commissioners will issue laissez-passers to Tibetans who apply to go to Nepal or other places, and set the leaving and returning dates for them.

　　西藏西南部与印度、尼泊尔等国的边界上若干地点，设立国界标志，驻藏大臣每年出巡各地，检查驻军防务及界碑情况。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

National boundary markers will be erected in a number of places where southwest Tibet borders on countries like India and Nepal. The high commissioners will make an annual tour in Tibet to inspect the defense arrangements of the troops stationed there and matters concerning border markers.

　　一切西藏涉外事宜均由驻藏大臣全权处理。噶伦不得与外方通信，达赖喇嘛、班禅额尔德尼接到外方信件、布施，俱报告驻藏大臣查验，并代为酌定回信。

All foreign affairs involving Tibet will be left completely in the hands of the high commissioners. No Galoin is allowed to maintain correspondence with the outside, and all letters and alms received by the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni from the outside must be submitted to the high commissioners for censorship and decision concerning a reply.

　　对犯罪者的处罚，都要经过驻藏大臣审批。

Criminal punishment will be reported to the high commissioners for examination and approval.

　　从1727年始设驻藏大臣到清王朝覆灭的1911年，清中央政府先后派遣驻藏大臣达百余人。

Between 1727, when the high commissionership was first established, and 1911, the year the Qing Dynasty was overthrown, the central government of the Qing Dynasty stationed more than 100 high commissioners in Tibet.

　　中华民国（公元1912—1949年）

Republic of China (1912-49)

　　1911年秋，中国内地爆发了辛亥革命，推翻了统治中国近270年的清王朝，建立了中华民国。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In the autumn of 1911, revolution took place in China's interior, overthrowing the 270-year-old rule of the Qing Dynasty and establishing the Republic of China.

　　中华民国一经成立，即宣布它是合汉、满、蒙、回、藏等民族为一体的共和国。1912年1月1日，中华民国第一任临时大总统孙中山在就职宣言书中向全世界昭告：“国家之本，在于人民，合汉、满、蒙、回、藏等诸地为一国，则合汉、满、蒙、回、藏诸族为一人，是曰民族之统一。”当时作为国旗的五色旗即象征五族为一体。3月，中华民国南京临时参议院颁布的民国第一部宪法《中华民国临时约法》明确规定，西藏是中华民国领土的一部分。

Upon its founding, the Republic of China declared itself a unified republic of the Han, Manchu, Mongol, Hui, Tibetan and other races. In his inauguration statement on January 1, 1912, Sun Yat-sen, the provisional first president of the Republic of China, declared to the whole world: "The foundation of the country lies in the people, and the unification of lands inhabited by the Han, Manchu, Mongol, Hui and Tibetan people into one country means the unification of the Han, Manchu, Mongol, Hui and Tibetan races. It is called national unification." The five-color flag used as the national flag at that time represented the unification of the five main races. In March the Nanjing-based provisional senate of the Republic of China promulgated the republic's first constitution, the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China, in which it was clearly stipulated that Tibet was a part of the territory of the Republic of China.

　　1912年8月10日，为组建中华民国第一届正式国会，北京政府颁布《中华中国国会组织法》和国会议员选举法，规定西藏地方民众参加选举的办法和被选举的议员直接参政。1927年，中国国民党在南京组建国民政府，并于1931年召开国民会议，十三世达赖喇嘛和九世班禅额尔德尼均派出正式代表参加。这次国民会议制订的《中华民国训政时期约法》总纲第一条规定：西藏是中华民国的领土。西藏地方政府和班禅的行政机构堪布厅的代表，还参加了南京国民政府于1946年召开的国民大会。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In order to form the first parliament of the Republic of China, the Beijing government promulgated on August 10, 1912 the Organic Law of the Parliament of the Republic of China and the law on elections for members of parliament. These statutes specified the methods for Tibetans to participate in elections, and the right of elected parliamentary members to have a direct say in government affairs. When the Chinese Kuomintang formed the national government in 1927 in Nanjing and held the national assembly in 1931, both the 13th Dalai Lama and the 9th Bainqen Erdeni sent representatives to participate. Article I of the General Outline of the Constitution for the Political Tutelage Period of the Republic of China, formulated during the assembly, stipulated that Tibet belonged to the territories of the Republic of China. The Tibetan local government and the Bainqen's administrative body, Kampus Assembly, also sent representatives to the national assembly in 1946 called by the Nanjing national government.

　　中华民国期间，中央政府一如元、明、清三朝，实行对西藏地方的治理。1912年中央政府设立蒙藏事务局（1914年5月改为蒙藏院），取代清朝的理藩院，主管西藏地方事务，并任命了中央驻藏办事长官，例行清朝驻藏大臣职权。南京国民政府成立后，于1929年设立蒙藏委员会，主管藏族、蒙古族等少数民族地区行政事宜。1940年4月，国民政府在拉萨设立蒙藏委员会驻藏办事处，作为中央政府在西藏的常设机构。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

As in the previous Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, the central government of the Republic of China exercised jurisdiction over Tibet. The Bureau of Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs (renamed Mongolian and Tibetan Council in May 1914) was established by the central government in 1912 to replace the Qing Dynasty's Department in Charge of Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs. The bureau was responsible for Tibetan local affairs. The central government also appointed a representative to Tibet to carry out the responsibilities of the high commissioners stationed in Tibet by the Qing Dynasty. After the Nanjing national government was set up, a Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs was established in 1929 to handle the administrative affairs of the Tibetans, Mongolians and other ethnic minorities. In April 1940 the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs opened an office in Lhasa as the permanent mission of the central government in Tibet.

　　依历史定制，达赖喇嘛、班禅额尔德尼以及其他大活佛，必须得到中央政府的认可和册封，他们在西藏地方才有政治上和宗教上的合法地位。民国期间，外患不已，内乱频仍，中央政府孱弱，但达赖喇嘛、班禅额尔德尼继续接受中央政府的册封。达赖、班禅等多次表示维护祖国统一，拥护中央政府。1919年，十三世达赖对北京中央政府派出的代表团说：“余亲英非出本心……余誓倾心内向，同谋五族幸福。”他在晚年（1930年）还曾表示，“吾所最希求者，即中国真正和平统一”，“都是中国领土，何分尔我”，“英人对吾确有诱惑之念，但吾知主权不可失”，公开表明“不亲英人，不背中央”的意旨（摘自刘曼卿著《康藏轺征》）。九世班禅在遗嘱中说，“余生平所发宏图，为拥护中央，宣扬佛化，促成五族团结，共保国运昌隆”。

Traditionally, the Dalai Lama, the Bainqen Erdeni and other high Living Buddhas had to be recognized and appointed by the central government in order to secure their political and religious legal status in Tibet. Despite the fact that incessant foreign aggression and civil wars weakened the central government of the Republic of China, it continued to grant honorific titles to the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni. On many occasions the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni expressed their support for national unification and for the central government. In 1919, the 13th Dalai Lama told a delegation sent by the Beijing central government, "It is not my true intention to be on intimate terms with the British.... I swear to be loyal to our own country and jointly work for the happiness of the five races." In his later years (in 1930), he said, "My greatest wish is for the real peace and unification of China." "Since it is all Chinese territory, why distinguish between you and us?" He further elaborated, "The British truly intend to tempt me, but I know that our sovereignty must not be lost." He also publicly expressed his determination "not to affiliate with the British nor forsake the central government" (Liu Manqing: A Mission to Xikang and Tibet). The 9th Bainqen noted in his will, "The great plan I have promoted all my life is the support of the central government, the spread of Buddhism, the promotion of the unity of the five nationalities and the guarantee of national prosperity."

　　1933年12月，十三世达赖喇嘛圆寂，西藏地方政府依传统旧制向中央呈报。国民政府派专使入藏致祭，并批准热振活佛为摄政，代行达赖喇嘛职权。对于寻觅十三世达赖转世灵童应遵循的办法，西藏地方政府都按照历来的规定一一呈报中央政府。现在的十四世达赖出生于青海省，原名拉木登珠，在他两岁时被选为转世灵童之一。1939年，经西藏地方政府呈报，中央政府指令青海省当局派军队把他护送至拉萨。1940年，当时任中央政府首脑的蒋介石，经特派蒙藏委员会委员长吴忠信到拉萨察看后，同意西藏地方摄政热振关于免于金瓶掣签的申请，由国民政府主席正式颁布命令，批准拉木登珠为十四世达赖喇嘛。

The death of the 13th Dalai Lama in December 1933 was reported to the central government by the Tibetan local government in the traditional manner. The national government sent a special envoy to Tibet for the memorial ceremony. It also approved the Living Buddha Razheng as the regent to assume the duties and power of the Dalai Lama. The Tibetan local government also followed the age-old system in reporting to the central government all the procedures that should be followed in search for the reincarnation of the late 13th Dalai Lama. The present 14th Dalai Lama was born in Qinghai Province. Originally named Lhamo Toinzhub, he was selected as one of the incarnate boys at the age of 2. After receiving a report submitted by the Tibetan local government in 1939, the central government ordered the Qinghai authorities to send troops to escort him to Lhasa. After an inspection tour in Lhasa by Wu Zhongxin, chief of the Commission for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs, in 1940, Chiang Kai-shek, then head of the central government, approved Tibetan Regent Razheng's request to waive the lot-drawing convention, and the chairman of the national government issued an official decree conferring the title of the 14th Dalai Lama on Lhamo Toinzhub.

　　中华人民共和国

People's Republic of China

　　1949年，中国人民解放战争取得了决定性胜利，中华人民共和国成立。原在国民党政府统治下的北平、湖南以及与西藏相邻的云南、新疆、西康等省相继以和平方式解放，中央人民政府根据西藏的历史和现实情况，决定也采取和平解放的方针。1950年1月，中央政府正式通知西藏地方当局“派出代表到北京谈判西藏和平解放”。但是，当时控制西藏地方政府的摄政大扎·阿旺松饶等人，在某些外国势力的支持下，不顾国家和西藏人民利益，拒不接受中央政府进行和平谈判的号召。他们在西藏东部昌都一线调集藏军主力，布兵设防，企图以武力对抗。在这种形势下，中央政府不得不于1950年10月命令人民解放军渡过金沙江，解放了昌都。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The People's Republic of China was founded in 1949 after decisive victories in the Chinese People's War of Liberation. Beiping, Hunan and the provinces bordering on Tibet--Yunnan, Xinjiang and Xikang--were all liberated peacefully from the rule of the former Kuomintang government. In light of the history and reality of Tibet, the central people's government decided to do the same for Tibet. In January 1950, the central government formally notified the local authorities of Tibet to "send delegates to Beijing to negotiate the peaceful liberation of Tibet." However, the then Tibetan Regent Dagzhag Ngawang Sungrab and others who were in control of the Tibetan local government, supported by some foreign forces and disregarding the interests of the country and the Tibetans, rejected the central government's call for negotiation on the peaceful liberation of Tibet. They deployed the main body of the Tibetan army in the Qamdo area in east Tibet for armed resistance. Under such circumstances, the central government was left with no choice and had to order the People's Liberation Army (PLA) to cross the Jinsha River in October 1950, and Qamdo was liberated.

　　昌都解放后，中央政府再次敦促西藏地方政府派代表来北京判谈。中央政府坚持和平谈判的政策，给西藏爱国力量以巨大支持和鼓舞。以阿沛·阿旺晋美为代表的爱国上层人士力主和谈，得到了多数人的赞同和支持，提前亲政的十四世达赖喇嘛，接受了进行和平谈判的意见。1951年1月，达赖致信中央人民政府，信中说“余此次接受西藏全体人民热烈而诚恳的要求执政”、“决定和平达成人民之愿望”，派代表“向中央人民政府谋求解决西藏问题。”1951年2月，达赖喇嘛任命阿沛·阿旺晋美为首席全权代表，凯墨·索安旺堆、土丹旦达、土登列门和桑颇·登增顿珠等四人为代表，赴北京全权处理和中央人民政府谈判事宜。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Following this event, the central government once again urged the Tibetan local government to send delegates to Beijing for negotiations. The central government's adherence to the policy of peaceful negotiations greatly supported and inspired the patriotic forces in Tibet. The upper-class patriotics, represented by Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme, stood for peaceful negotiation, winning the endorsement and support of the majority. The 14th Dalai Lama who had assumed power ahead of time accepted the proposal. In his letter to the central people's government in January 1951, he said, "I have come to govern at the warm and earnest request of all Tibetans"; "I have decided to fulfill the people's desire through peaceful means"; and delegates would be sent "to seek a solution to the Tibetan issue with the central people's government." In February 1951, the Dalai Lama appointed Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme as his chief plenipotentiary and Kemai Soinam Wangdui, Tubdain Daindar, Tubdain Legmoin and Sampo Dainzin Toinzhub as delegates and sent them to Beijing to handle with full power the negotiations with the central people's government.

　　1951年5月23日，中央人民政府和西藏地方政府的代表就西藏和平解放的一系列问题达成协议，签订了《中央人民政府和西藏地方政府关于和平解放西藏办法的协议》（简称“十七条协议”）。协议规定，西藏人民团结起来，驱逐帝国主义侵略势力出西藏；西藏地方政府积极协助人民解放军进入西藏，巩固国防；西藏实行民族区域自治；西藏现行政治制度和达赖喇嘛、班禅额尔德尼的固有地位及职权，中央不予变更，各级官员照常供职；实行宗教信仰自由的政策，尊重西藏人民的宗教信仰和风俗习惯；逐步发展西藏民族的语言、文字和学校教育，以及农牧工商业，改善人民生活；西藏地区的涉外事宜，由中央统一管理。协议还明确规定，有关西藏的各项改革事宜，中央不加强迫，西藏地方政府自动进行改革。

On May 23, 1951, the Agreement of the Central People's Government and the Local Government of Tibet on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet (i.e., the 17-Article Agreement) was signed after the delegates of the central people's government and the Tibetan local government had reached agreement on a series of questions concerning Tibet's peaceful liberation. It was stipulated in the agreement that the Tibetan people should unite and drive out imperialist aggressive forces from Tibet; the local government of Tibet should actively assist the PLA in entering Tibet and consolidating national defense; national regional autonomy would be instituted in Tibet; the central government would not alter the existing political system in Tibet or the established status, functions and powers of the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni, and officials of various ranks would continue to hold office as usual; the policy of freedom of religious belief would be upheld and the religious beliefs, customs and habits of the Tibetan people would be respected; the spoken and written language and school education of the Tibetan nationality would be developed step by step, along with agriculture, livestock raising, industry and commerce in order to improve the people's livelihood; foreign affairs involving the Tibet region would be under the unified management of the central people's government. The agreement also explicitly stipulated that in matters relating to reforms in Tibet, there would be no coercion on the part of the central authorities, and reform would be carried out by the Tibetan local government of its own accord.

　　和平解放西藏的协议受到西藏各民族人民的赞成和拥护。1951年9月26日至29日，西藏地方政府召开有全体僧俗官员、三大寺代表参加的大会，专门讨论协议问题。大会最后通过的给达赖的呈文说，“签订的十七条协议，对于达赖之宏业，西藏之佛法、政治、经济诸方面，大有裨益，无与伦比，理当遵照执行”。达赖喇嘛于10月24日致电毛泽东主席，表示“双方代表在友好基础上，已于1951年5月23日签订了关于和平解放西藏办法的协议。西藏地方政府及藏族僧俗人民一致拥护，并在毛主席及中央人民政府的领导下，积极协助人民解放军进藏部队，巩固国防，驱逐帝国主义势力出西藏，保护祖国领土主权的统一”。班禅和堪布厅也发表声明，指出协议“完全符合中国各族人民，特别是西藏民族人民的利益”。同年10月26日，人民解放军在西藏人民支持下，顺利进驻拉萨。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The agreement for the peaceful liberation of Tibet enjoyed the approval and support of the people from every ethnic group in Tibet. A conference of all ecclesiastic and secular officials and representatives of the three most prominent monasteries was called by the Tibetan local government between September 26 and 29, 1951 to specifically discuss the agreement. A report to the Dalai Lama was approved at the end of the conference. It stated, "The 17-Article Agreement that has been signed is of great and unrivaled benefit to the grand cause of the Dalai and to Buddhism, politics, economy and other aspects of life in Tibet. Naturally it should be implemented." The Dalai Lama sent a telegram to Chairman Mao Zedong on October 24, 1951, in which he wrote, "On the basis of friendship, delegates of the two sides signed on May 23, 1951 the Agreement on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet. The Tibetan local government as well as ecclesiastic and secular people unanimously support this agreement, and under the leadership of Chairman Mao and the central people's government, will actively assist the PLA troops entering Tibet in consolidating national defense, ousting imperialist influences from Tibet and safeguarding the unification of the territory and the sovereignty of the motherland." The Bainqen Lama and the Kampus Assembly also issued a statement, pointing out that the agreement "conforms fully to the interests of all ethnic nationalities of China, particularly those of the Tibetans." On October 26, with the support of the Tibetan people, the PLA entered Lhasa without a hitch.

　　西藏和平解放后，中央人民政府和西藏上层爱国力量为贯彻执行“十七条协议”做了大量工作。1954年，达赖、班禅联袂赴北京参加中华人民共和国第一届全国人民代表大会。达赖剌嘛在会上发言，对三年多来执行“十七条协议”所取得的成绩给予了充分肯定，对会议所审议的新中国第一部宪法草案中有关民族区域自治的原则和规定表示热烈拥护。在谈到宗教问题时，达赖喇嘛说：西藏人民具有很浓厚的宗教信仰，一些人制造的所谓“共产党、人民政府毁灭宗教”的谣言曾经使他们疑惑不安。但是现在，这种“挑拔离间的谣言已经全部破产了，西藏人民已经切身体会到了我们在宗教信仰上是有自由的。”他表示，要在中央人民政府的领导下，在各族人民帮助下，逐步把西藏建设成为繁荣幸福的地方。9月20日，达赖、班禅等西藏代表与出席会议的全国各族代表以投票表决方式通过了《中华人民共和国宪法》。在此次会议上，达赖喇嘛当选为全国人民代表大会常务委员会副委员长，班禅额尔德尼当选为全国人民代表大会常务委员会委员。他们作为国家领导成员，依照中国宪法，行使参与管理国家各项事务的权利。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

After the peaceful liberation of Tibet, the central people's government and upper-class patriotic forces of Tibet did a great deal of work to implement the 17-Article Agreement. In 1954 the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Erdeni came to Beijing to attend the First Session of the National People's Congress (NPC) of the People's Republic of China. In his speech at the congress, the Dalai Lama fully confirmed the achievements in the implementation of the 17-Article Agreement over the preceding three years, and expressed his warm support for the principles and provisions concerning national regional autonomy in the draft of New China's first Constitution, which was under discussion at the congress. Talking about religious issues, the Dalai Lama said that the Tibetan people had deeply held religious beliefs, and they were formerly made anxious by fallacious rumors spread by some people that "the Communist Party and the people's government will extinguish religion." However, he added, "the rumors that aim to sow discord have all been exploded and the Tibetan people know from our own experience that we have freedom of religious belief." He expressed the desire to gradually build Tibet into a land of prosperity and happiness under the leadership of the central people's government and with the help of people of other ethnic groups. On September 20, the Dalai Lama, the Bainqen Erdeni and the other Tibetan deputies, along with the deputies from other ethnic groups, approved the Constitution of the People's Republic of China by casting their ballots. At the session, the Dalai Lama was elected a vice-chairman of the NPC Standing Committee, and Bainqen Erdeni a member of the NPC Standing Committee. In their capacity as state leaders, they exercised their rights of participating in the management of state affairs in accordance with the Constitution.

　　1956年4月22日，达赖喇嘛就任西藏自治区筹备委员会主任委员，他在筹委会成立大会上致词说：“1951年我派代表到北京与中央人民政府代表进行谈判，在团结友爱的基础上，签订了《中央人民政府和西藏地方政府关于和平解放西藏办法的协议》。从此，西藏人民永远摆脱了帝国主义的奴役和羁绊，回到祖国大家庭，和祖国各兄弟民族人民一样，充分享受到民族平等的一切权利，开始走上了自由幸福的光明大道。”

On April 22, 1956, the Dalai Lama became chairman of the Preparatory Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region. In his speech at the inaugural meeting, the Dalai Lama said, "In 1951, I sent delegates to Beijing to negotiate with delegates of the central people's government. On the basis of fraternal unity, the Agreement of the Central People's Government and the Local Government of Tibet on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet was signed. Since then, the Tibetan people shook off forever the fetters of imperialist enslavement and trammels and rejoined the large national family. Like our sibling races throughout the country, the Tibetan people fully enjoy all rights of national equality, and are embarking on a bright road of freedom and happiness."

二、所谓“西藏独立”的由来

II. Origins of So-Called 'Tibetan Independence'

　　七百多年来，中国中央政府一直对西藏地方行使着主权，西藏地方从未成为一个独立国家。记载着七百多年来历史事实的数百万件汉藏文档案材料仍保存在北京、南京和西藏拉萨的档案馆中。世界上从未有任何一个国家的政府承认西藏是一个独立的国家。1904年，英国外交大臣兰斯顿发出的正式训令称，西藏为“中华帝国的一个省”。1954年，印度总理尼赫鲁在印度人民院的讲演中说：“在以往数百年中，我就不知道在任何时候，任何一个外面的国家曾经否认过中国在西藏的主权。”达赖集团和国际反华势力曾散布自1911年辛亥革命到1949年中华人民共和国成立，西藏已是一个“充分行使权力”的国家。历史事实驳斥了这种谎言。仅十四世达赖喇嘛要经国民政府批准方得继承这一点，就充分说明当时的西藏根本没有什么独立的权力。达赖集团和国际反华势力大肆鼓吹的所谓“西藏独立”，不过是近代历史上帝国主义侵略中国的产物。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

For more than 700 years the central government of China has continuously exercised sovereignty over Tibet, and Tibet has never been an independent state. Now millions of files in both Chinese and Tibetan recording historical facts over more than seven centuries are being kept in the archives of Beijing, Nanjing and Lhasa. No government of any country in the world has ever recognized Tibet as an independent state. British Foreign Secretary Lord Lansdowne, in a formal instruction he sent out in 1904, called Tibet "a province of the Chinese Empire." In his speech at the Lok Sabba in 1954, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru said, "Over the past several hundred years, as far as I know, at no time has any foreign country denied China's sovereignty over Tibet." The Dalai clique and overseas anti-China forces used to claim that between the 1911 Revolution and the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Tibet became a country "exercising full authority." Historical facts refute such a fallacy. The simple reality that the installation of the 14th Dalai Lama needed the approval of the national government is sufficient proof that Tibet did not possess any independent power during that period. Therefore, the so-called "Tibetan independence" which the Dalai clique and overseas anti-China forces fervently propagate is nothing but a fiction of the imperialists who committed aggression against China in modern history.

　　帝国主义是怎样阴谋策划西藏独立的

How Have Imperialists Instigated Tibetan Independence?

　　在二十世纪初的藏语词汇中还没有“独立”这个词。1840年英帝国主义发动侵略中国的鸦片战争后，中国开始由一个独立的主权国家逐步沦为半殖民地国家。帝国主义势力乘清朝中央政府的虚弱，开始阴谋瓜分包括西藏在内的中国领土。

There was no such word as "independence" in the Tibetan vocabulary at the beginning of the 20th century. After the British imperialists started the Opium War of aggression against China in 1840, China was reduced from an independent sovereign country to a semi-colonial country. Imperialist forces took advantage of a weak Qing Dynasty and began plotting to carve up China, Tibet included.

　　为了把西藏纳入英国的势力范围，1888年、1903年，英国侵略者发动了两次侵略中国西藏的战争。西藏军民奋起抵抗但遭失败。在第二次侵藏战争中，英军一度攻占了拉萨，十三世达赖喇嘛被迫出走，侵略者迫使西藏地方政府官员签订了《拉萨条约》。但由于清朝政府外务部认为《拉萨条约》有损主权，清朝驻藏大臣不予签字，条约无效。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In order to bring Tibet into its sphere of influence, British aggressors invaded China's Tibet twice in 1888 and 1903. The Tibetan army and civilians rose to resist but were defeated. In the second aggressive war against Tibet, the British army occupied Lhasa, and the 13th Dalai Lama was forced to flee from the city. The invaders compelled the Tibetan local government officials to sign the Lhasa Convention. But because the Ministry of External Affairs of the Qing government believed the Lhasa Convention would do damage to national sovereignty, the high commissioner stationed in Tibet by the Qing government refused to sign it, leaving it ineffectual.

　　帝国主义靠直接军事侵略没有达到完全控制西藏的目的之后，就变换手法，开始策划把西藏从中国分裂出去的活动。1907年8月31日，英、俄帝国签订了《英俄同盟条约》，其中把中国在西藏的主权改称为“宗主权”。这是在国际文件中第一次把中国对西藏地方的主权篡改为“宗主权”。

After their failure to assume full control of Tibet through direct military incursion, the imperialists changed their tack and began plotting to separate Tibet from China. On August 31, 1907, Britain and Russia signed the Convention Between Great Britain and Russia, which changed China's sovereignty over Tibet into "suzerainty." This marked the first time Chin's sovereignty over Tibet was altered into "suzerainty" in international documents.

　　1911年，中国辛亥革命爆发。次年，英国利用清朝灭亡，民国初建，中国国内政局混乱之机，向中国外交部提出了否定中国对西藏主权的“五条”。在遭中国政府拒绝后，英国封闭了由印度进入西藏的一切道路。1913年，英政府又煽动西藏当局宣布独立，提出“西藏完全独立后，一切军械由英国接济”；“西藏承认英国派员来藏监督财政军事，以作英国扶助西藏独立报酬”；“民国军队行抵西藏，英国担负抵御之责”；“西藏执行开放主义，准英人自由行动”（摘自朱绣著《西藏六十年大事记》）。但英国的图谋未能得逞。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The year following the 1911 Revolution, Britain took advantage of the political chaos in China after the collapse of the Qing Dynasty and the new birth of the Republic of China, and put before the Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs a five-point demand, indicating the denial of China's sovereignty over Tibet. When the Chinese government rejected the British demand, the British blocked all the roads leading from India to Tibet. In 1913 the British government inveigled the Tibetan authorities into declaring independence and proposed that "Britain be the weaponry supplier after total independence of Tibet;" "Tibet accept British envoys' supervision of Tibetan financial and military affairs in return for Britain's support of Tibetan independence;" "Britain be responsible for resisting the army of the Republic of China when it reaches Tibet;" "Tibet adopt an open policy and allow freedom of movement of the British." (Zhu Xiu: 60-Year Chronology of Tibet) However, Britain's schemes failed.

　　1913年，英国政府利用篡夺了中华民国大总统职位的袁世凯迫切要求得到各国外交承认和得到国际借款的心理，迫使北京政府参加英国政府提出的中、英、藏三方会议，即“西姆拉会议”。会前，英印政府派驻锡金政治专员柏尔单独会晤西藏地方政府参加会议的代表夏扎伦青，向他鼓吹“宗主权”具有“独立”的含义。柏尔在其所著《西藏之过去与现在》一书中自述：“当吾遇夏扎伦青于江孜时，吾劝其搜集所有关于昔日中藏交涉以及陆续为中国占领而西藏现今要求归还之各州县等项之文牍，携之赴会。”经过英国的唆使，西藏代表首次提出了“西藏独立”的口号，并提出“西藏疆域包括青海、理塘、巴塘等处并及打箭炉”等要求，当即遭到中国政府代表的拒绝。这时，英国代表按事先策划，提出了所谓的“折衷”方案，把中国藏族居住的所有地区划分为“内藏”、“外藏”两部分，“内藏”包括青海、甘肃、四川、云南等省的藏族居住地区，由中国政府直接管辖；“外藏”包括西藏和西康西部地区，要求中国政府“承认外藏自治”，“不干涉其内政”，“但中国仍派大臣驻拉萨，护卫部队限三百人”。这个“折衷”方案的实质，是把中国在西藏地方的主权篡改为所谓“宗主权”，使西藏在“自治”的名义下，脱离中国政府的管辖。如此无理的要求，当然遭到了全中国人民的强烈反对。1914年7月3日，中国政府代表陈贻范奉国内训示，拒绝在所谓“西姆拉条约”上签字，并且发表声明：“凡英国和西藏本日或他日所签订的条约或类似的文件，中国政府一概不能承认。”中国政府同时将此立场照会英国政府。会议遂以破裂告终。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In 1913, taking advantage of the fact that Yuan Shikai, who had usurped the presidency of the Republic of China, was eager to get foreign diplomatic recognition and international loans, the British government forced the Beijing government to participate in a tripartite conference of China, Britain and Tibet, namely the Simla Conference held at the behest of the British government. Before the conference, Charles Bell political officer sent to Sikkim by the British-Indian government, privately met with Lon-chen Shatra, the representative of the Tibetan local government to the conference. Bell trumpeted to Lon-chen Shatra that "suzerainty" implied "independence." In his book Tibet: Past and Present, Bell wrote, "When I met Lon-chen Shatra in Gyantse, I advised him to bring down all the documents which he could collect bearing on the Tibetan relationship to China in the past, and on the former's claims to the various provinces and districts which had from time to time been occupied by China." Stirred up by the British, the Tibetan representative raised the slogan of "Tibetan independence" for the first time. He also claimed "Tibetan territory includes Qinghai, Litang, Batang and Dajianlu." When these demands were rejected by the representative of the Chinese government, the British delegate introduced the pre-arranged "compromise" scheme, which divided China's Tibetan-inhabited areas into "inner Tibet" and "outer Tibet." "Inner Tibet," including Tibetan-inhabited areas in Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces, would be under the jurisdiction of the Chinese government. With regard to "outer Tibet," including Tibet and west Xikang, the Chinese government was requested to "recognize the autonomy of outer Tibet" and "refrain from interfering in its internal affairs;" "however, China may still send its high commissioner to Lhasa and maintain an escort army of no more than 300 soldiers." The essence of this "compromise" scheme was to change China's sovereignty over Tibet into "suzerainty," and separate Tibet from the authority of the Chinese government under the pretext of "autonomy." Naturally these unreasonable demands were strongly opposed by the Chinese people. On July 3, 1914, the Chinese government representative Chen Yifan upon instruction refused to sign the Simla Convention. In his statement, Chen said, "Government of China refuses to recognize any agreement which His Majesty's Government and Tibet might conclude independently either now or in the future." The Chinese government also sent a note to the British government, reiterating its position. Therefore, the conference broke down.

　　1942年夏，西藏地方政府在英国代表的支持下突然宣布成立“外交局”，公开进行“西藏独立”活动。消息传出，遭到全国人民的同声谴责，国民政府也发出严正警告，西藏地方政府迫于压力，不得不向国民政府报告改变原议。1947年3月在新德里举行“泛亚洲会议”，英帝国主义幕后策划邀请西藏派代表参加，在会场上悬挂的亚洲地图和万国旗中，把西藏作为一个独立国家对待。经中国代表团提出严重抗议后，会议组织者不得不改正。

In the summer of 1942, the Tibetan local government, with the support of the British representative, suddenly announced the establishment of a "foreign affairs bureau," and openly carried out "Tibetan independence" activities. These actions, as soon as they were made public, were condemned unanimously by the Chinese people. The national government also issued a stern warning. Under this pressure, the Tibetan local government had no choice but to withdraw its decision and reported the change to the national government. At the "Asian Relations Conference" held in New Delhi in March 1947, the British imperialists plotted behind the curtains to invite Tibetan representatives and even identified Tibet as an independent country on the map of Asia in the conference hall and in the array of national flags. The organizers were forced to rectify this after the Chinese delegation made serious protests.

　　1949年底前后，美国人劳尔·汤姆斯以“无线电评论员”名义在西藏探索“华盛顿给西藏以可能的援助”，并在美报刊上报道：“美国已准备承认西藏为独立自由”的国家。1950年上半年，一批美国枪支弹药经由加尔各答运入西藏，用以对抗中国解放军进藏。同年11月1日，美国国务卿艾奇逊公开诬蔑中国解放本国领土西藏的行动是“侵略”。同月，美国指使他国在联合国提出干涉中国西藏的提案。由于中国政府的严正立场和一些国家的反对，这个阴谋没有得逞。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Around the end of 1949, the American Lowell Thomas roamed Tibet in the guise of a "radio commentator" to explore the "possibility of aid that Washington could give Tibet." He wrote in a US newspaper: " The United States is ready to recognize Tibet as an independent and free country." In the first half of 1950, a load of American weaponry was shipped into Tibet through Calcutta in order to help resist the PLA's entry into Tibet. On November 1 of the same year, US Secretary of State Dean Acheson openly slandered China's liberation of its own territory of Tibet as "invasion." In the same month the United States prodded some other countries to propose a motion at the United Nations for intervention in China's Tibet. The scheme was unsuccessful in face of the stern stand of the Chinese government and the opposition of some countries.

　　一百多年来的历史事实清楚地说明，所谓“西藏独立”完全是新老帝国主义者出于攫取西藏的野心而挑动起来的。十四世达赖喇嘛早年曾指出：“帝国主义利用西藏人民反对满清和国民党反动政府的情绪，进行各种诱骗和挑拨，企图使西藏人民脱离祖国而处于他们的压迫和奴役之下。”

Historical facts over more than a century clearly demonstrate that so-called "Tibetan independence" was, in reality, cooked up by old and new imperialists out of their crave to wrest Tibet from China. The 14th Dalai Lama in his early years pointed out, "It was the imperialists who, taking advantage of the Tibetan people's antipathy to the Qing Dynasty and the reactionary Kuomintang government, attempted by enticement, deception and instigation to get the Tibetan people to separate from the motherland and come under their oppression and enslavement."

　　1959年武装判乱是怎样发生的

How Does the 1959 Armed Rebellion Occur?

　　和平解放前，西藏实行的是上层僧侣和贵族专政的封建农奴制，西藏的广大农奴迫切要求挣脱农奴制的枷锁。和平解放后，许多上中层的开明人士也认识到，如不改革旧制度，西藏民族断无繁荣昌盛的可能。中央人民政府考虑到西藏历史和现实的特殊情况，对西藏社会制度的改革采取了十分慎重的态度。“十七条协议”规定，这种改革中央不加强迫，由西藏地方政府自动进行。1957年1月，国务院总理周恩来访问印度期间又向达赖、班禅及随行的西藏地方政府主要官员转交了毛泽东主席的信，传达了中央的决定，在第二个五年计划期间（1958年—1962年）不搞改革，过六年之后是否改革，仍然由西藏根据那时的情况和条件决定。

Before peaceful liberation in 1951, Tibet was under a feudal serfdom characterized by the dictatorship of upper-class monks and nobles. The broad masses of serfs in Tibet eagerly wanted to break the shackles of serfdom. After the peaceful liberation, many enlightened people of the upper and middle classes also realized that if the old system was not reformed, the Tibetan people would never attain prosperity. In light of Tibetan history and the region's special situation, the central people's government adopted a very circumspect attitude toward the reform of the social system in Tibet. The 17-Article Agreement stipulated that the central government would not use coercion to implement such reform and that it was to be carried out by the Tibetan local government on its own. During his visit to India in January 1957, Premier Zhou Enlai of the State Council handed a letter from Chairman Mao Zedong to the Dalai Lama and Bainqen Lama and the accompanying Tibetan local government senior officials. The letter informed them of the decision of the central authorities that reform would not be conducted during the Second Five-Year Plan period (1958-62); whether reform should be conducted after six years would still be decided by Tibet according to its own situation and conditions then.

　　但是，西藏上层统治集团中的一些人根本反对改革，试图永远保持农奴制，以维护既得利益。他们蓄意违背和破坏“十七条协议”，变本加厉地进行分裂祖国的活动。1952年3、4月间，西藏地方政府的司曹鲁康娃和洛桑扎西暗中支持非法组织“人民会议”在拉萨骚乱闹事，反对“十七条协议”，提出人民解放军“撤出西藏”。1955年，西藏地方政府噶伦索康·旺清格勒等在当时的西康省藏区秘密策划煽动武装叛乱。1956年，该区叛乱开始，叛乱分子围攻地方政权机构，残杀工作人员和群众数百人。1957年5月在西藏地方政府噶伦柳霞·土登塔巴、先喀·居美多吉的支持下，成立了“四水六岗”叛乱组织，稍后又成立号称“卫教军”的叛乱武装，提出“西藏独立”及反对改革的口号，叛乱活动愈演愈烈。武装叛乱分子窜扰昌都、丁青、黑河、山南等地区，杀戮干部，破坏交通，袭击中央派驻当地的机关、部队，并到处抢掠财物，残害人民，奸淫妇女。乃东宗一个名叫东达八扎的商人，因不肯参加叛乱，叛乱分子把他和妻子抓起来，吊打过后，将东达八扎杀死，将他妻子强奸。当时的旧西藏地方政府也承认，很多群众因遭叛乱分子残害向他们告状，仅1958年8月，就有70多起。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

However, some members of the Tibetan ruling class were hostile to reform and wanted to preserve the serfdom forever so as to maintain their own vested interests. They deliberately violated and sabotaged the 17-Article Agreement and intensified their efforts to split the motherland. Between March and April 1952, Sicab Lukangwa and Losang Zhaxi of the Tibetan local government gave secret support to the illicit organization "the people's conference" to oppose the 17-Article Agreement and create disturbance in Lhasa, demanding that the PLA "pull out of Tibet." In 1955, Galoin Surkang Wangqen Geleg of the Tibetan local government and others secretly plotted an armed rebellion in the Tibetan-inhabited area of Xikang Province. Rebellion broke out in that area in 1956 and the rebels besieged the local government institutions and massacred hundreds of government staff as well as common people. In May 1957, with the support of Galoins Neuxar Tubdain Tarba and Xainga Gyurme Doje, a rebel organization named "four rivers and six ranges" and later the rebel armed forces named "religion guards" were founded. They raised the slogan of "Tibetan Independence" and "opposition to reform" and further intensified their rebellious activities. The armed rebels harassed Qamdo, Dengqen, Heihe and Shannan. They killed cadres, disrupted communication lines, and attacked institutions and army troops stationed there by the central authorities. They looted, cruelly persecuted people and raped women. A merchant named Dongda Bazha in Nedong County was captured together with his wife because he refused to take part in the rebellion. The rebels tied up the couple and lashed them before killing the husband and raping his wife. The then Tibetan local government admitted that many Tibetan people lodged complaints against the rebels with it. In August 1958 alone, there were more than 70 complaints.

　　中央人民政府本着民族团结的精神，一再责成西藏地方政府负责惩办叛乱分子，维护社会治安，并对西藏地方政府的噶伦表示，“中央不改变西藏地区推迟改革的决定，并且在将来实行改革时仍要采取和平改革的方针”。但是西藏上层反动集团把中央这种仁至义尽的态度看作软弱可欺。他们宣称：“九年来，汉人动也不敢动我们最美妙最神圣的制度；我们打他们，他们只有招架之功，并无还手之力；只要我们从外地调一大批武装到拉萨，一打汉人准跑；如果不跑，我们就把达赖佛爷逼往山南，聚集力量，举行反功，夺回拉萨；最后不行，就跑印度”。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The central people's government, in the spirit of national unity, repeatedly urged the Tibetan local government to punish the rebels to maintain public order. Meanwhile, it told the Galoins of the Tibetan local government, "The central government will not change its decision on postponing reform in Tibet and in the future, when the reform is conducted, the policy to be followed will still be one of peaceful reform." However, the reactionary clique of the upper social strata in Tibet took the extreme forbearance of the central government as a sign of weakness and easiness to bully. They declared, "For nine years, the Hans have not dared to touch our most glorious and sacrosanct system. When we attacked them, they could only parry our blows without being able to strike back. So long as we transfer a large number of troops to Lhasa from outside, the Hans will surely flee at the first blow. If they don't run away, we will carry His Holiness the Dalai Lama to Shannan, and gather our strength there to launch a counter-attack and seize back Lhasa. If all these efforts fail, we can go to India."

　　西藏的武装叛乱，从开始就得到国外反华势力的支持。美国人诺曼·C·霍尔著《美国、西藏和中国》披露，1957年，美国中央情报局从旅居国外的藏人中挑选六名青年，送美国的关岛，接受识图、收发报、射击和跳伞训练。此后，美国又在科罗拉多州海尔营地分批训练“康巴游击队员”达170人，经训练的“康巴游击队员”被分批空投或潜回西藏，“建立有效的抵抗运动”，“反对中国人的占领”。1975年9月5日香港出版的《远东经济评论》所载《美国中央情报局对西藏的阴谋》一文记述：1958年5月，首批受美训练的两名特务携带电台到叛乱头目恩珠仓·公布扎西设在山南的总部与美国中央情报局联系。不久，美国即在哲古地区空投一批武器弹药给叛乱分子，计轻机枪20挺，迫击炮2门，步枪100支，手榴弹600枚，炮弹600发，子弹近4万发。这一时期，美国还从陆路偷运大批武器弹药供给盘踞山南的叛乱分子。

The armed rebellion in Tibet was supported from the beginning by foreign anti-China forces. In his book The United States, Tibet and China American Norman C. Hall reveals that in 1957 the CIA culled six young men from among Tibetans residing abroad and sent them to Guam of the United States to receive training in map-reading, radio transmission, shooting and parachuting. Subsequently, the United States trained 170 "Kamba guerrillas" in batches in Hale Camp, Colorado. The trained "Kamba guerrillas" were air-dropped or sneaked into Tibet to "launch an effective resistance movement" to "oppose the Chinese occupation." An article entitled The CIA Tibetan Conspiracy in the Hong Kong-based Far Eastern Economic Review disclosed in its September 5 issue of 1975 that in May 1958, two agents trained by the Americans in the first batch brought a transceiver to the headquarter set up by the rebel leader Anzhugcang Goinbo Zhaxi in Shannan to make contact with the CIA. Before long, the United States air-dropped arms and ammunition, including 20 sub-machine guns, two mortars, 100 rifles, 600 hand-grenades, 600 artillery shells and close to 40,000 bullets, to the rebels in the plateau called Chigu Lama Thang. During the same period, the United States clandestinely shipped large amounts of arms and ammunition overland to the rebels entrenched in the Shannan area.

　　在西藏顽固坚持农奴制度的农奴主和国外反华势力相互勾结下，叛乱活动迅速蔓延。1959年3月10日在拉萨发生的全面武装叛乱，就是经精心策划而挑起的。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

With the collusion of the Tibetan serf-owners bent on retaining serfdom and the foreign anti-China forces, the rebellious activities soon became rampant. The climax was the elaborately planned armed rebellion in Lhasa on March 10, 1959.

　　2月7日，达赖喇嘛主动向西藏军区副司令员邓少东等提出：“听说西藏军区文工团在内地学习回来后演出的节目很好，我想看一次，请你们给安排一下。”邓少东等当即表示欢迎，并请达赖确定演出时间、地点，同时将达赖的这一愿望告诉了西藏地方政府的索康等噶伦和达赖的副官长帕拉·土登为登等人。3月8日，达赖确定3月10日下午3时到西藏军区礼堂看演出。西藏军区方面为此作了认真周到的接待准备工作。3月9日晚，拉萨墨本（市长）却煽动市民说：达赖喇嘛明天要去军区赴宴、看戏，汉人准备了飞机，要把达赖喇嘛劫往北京；每家都要派人到达赖喇嘛驻地罗布林卡请愿，请求他不要去军区看戏。次日晨，叛乱分子胁迫2000多人去罗布林卡，又散布“军区要毒死达赖喇嘛”的谣言，呼喊“西藏独立”、“赶走汉人”的口号。叛乱分子当场打伤西藏地方政府卸任噶伦、时任西藏军区副司令员的桑颇·才旺仁增，用石头将爱国进步人士、自治区筹委会委员堪穷帕巴拉·索朗降措活活打死，并拴在马尾上拖尸到市中心示众。随后，叛乱头目连续召开所谓“人民代表会议”、“西藏独立国人民会议”，加紧组织和扩大叛乱武装。他们公开撕毁“十七条协议”，宣布“西藏独立”，全面发动了背叛祖国的武装叛乱。

On February 7, the Dalai Lama took the initiative and said to Deng Shaodong, deputy commander of the Tibet Military Area Command, and other officers, "I was told that after its return from studies in the hinterland, the Song and Dance Ensemble under the Tibet Military Area Command has a very good repetoire. I would like to see its show. Please arrange it for me." Deng and the other officers expressed immediate readiness and asked the Dalai Lama to fix the time and place for performance. They also conveyed the Dalai Lama's wish to Surkang and other Galoins of the Tibetan local government and Paglha Tubdain Weidain, adjutant general of the Dalai Lama. On March 8, the Dalai Lama said he would go to the performance in the Tibet Military Area Command Auditorium at 3 pm on March 10. The Tibet Military Area Command carefully prepared for the occasion. But on the evening of March 9, the Miboin (mayor) of Lhasa provoked citizens by saying: tomorrow the Dalai Lama will go to the Military Area Command for a banquet and a performance; the Hans have prepared a plane to kidnap the Dalai Lama to Beijing; every household should send people to Norbu Lingka, the residence of the Dalai Lama, to petition him not to attend the performance in the Military Area Command. The next morning, the rebels coerced more than 2,000 people to mass at Norbu Lingka, spreading the rumor that "the Military Area Command is planning to poison the Dalai Lama" and shouting slogans such as "Tibetan Independence" and "Away with the Hans." The rebels hit and wounded Sampo Cewang Rinzin, a former Galoin of the Tibetan local government and then a deputy commander of the Tibet Military Area Command. They stoned to death Kainqoin Pagbalha Soinam Gyamco, a progressive patriot and member of the Preparatory Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region. His body was tied to the tail of a horse and dragged through downtown as a warning. Subsequently, the rebel leaders convened the so-called "people's congress" and "people's conference of the independent state of Tibet," intensifying their efforts to organize and expand armed rebellion. They brazenly tore up the 17-Article Agreement and declared "the independence of Tibet," launching a full-scale armed rebellion against the motherland.

　　虽然罗布林卡受到叛乱分子控制，同达赖喇嘛的联系十分困难，中央代理代表谭冠三仍设法通过爱国人士先后于3月10日、11日和15日给达赖喇嘛三封信。谭冠三在信中表示体谅达赖喇嘛的处境，关心他的安全，并指出叛乱分子猖獗地进行军事挑衅，要求西藏地方政府立即予以制止。达赖喇嘛亦于3月11日、12日和16日先后给谭冠三复信三封。信中说：“反动的坏分子们正借口保护我的安全而进行危害我的活动，对此我正设法平息。”“反动集团的违法行为，使我无限忧伤……以保护我的安全为名而制造的严重离间中央与地方关系的事件，我正尽一切可能设法处理。”在16日的信中，他还表示，已对地方政府官员等进行了“教育”和“严厉地指责”，并表示几天后还可能到军区去。达赖喇嘛这三封亲笔信的原件曾由新华社记者摄成照片公开发表，现仍保存完好。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Although Norbu Lingka was controlled by the rebels and it was hard to make contact with the Dalai Lama, acting representative of the central government Tan Guansan managed to send three letters to the Dalai Lama on March 10, 11 and 15 through patriots. In them, Tan expressed his understanding of the Dalai Lama's situation as well as his concern for the latter's safety. He pointed out that the rebels were making reckless military provocations and demanded that the Tibetan local government immediately work to stop them. The Dalai Lama penned three letters in reply to Tan on March 11, 12 and 16. In his letters, the Dalai Lama wrote, "Reactionary, evil elements are carrying out activities endangering me under the pretext of ensuring my safety. I am taking measures to calm things down." "The unlawful activities of the reactionary clique cause me endless worry and sorrow.... As to the incidents of yesterday and the day before, which were brought about under the pretext of ensuring my safety and have seriously estranged relations between the central people's government and the local government, I am making every possible effort to deal with them." In the letter of March 16, he said that he had "educated" and "severely criticized" officials of the Tibetan local government. He also expressed the desire to still go to the Military Area Command a few days later. All three letters of the Dalai Lama have been photographed by reporters of the Xinhua News Agency and published, and are still well preserved.

　　但是，3月17日夜，噶伦索康、柳霞、夏苏等叛乱头目挟持达赖喇嘛逃离拉萨，前往叛乱武装的“根据地”山南。叛乱失败后，又逃往印度。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

However, on the evening of March 17, Galoins Surkang, Neuxar and Xaisur and other rebel leaders held the Dalai Lama under duress and carried him away from Lhasa to Shannan, the "base" of the armed rebel forces. When the armed rebellion failed, they fled to India.

　　达赖喇嘛离开拉萨后，叛乱分子调集约7000人，于3月20日凌晨向党政军机关发动全面进攻。人民解放军在忍无可忍，让无可让的情况下，于当日上午10日奉命进行反击。在藏族爱国僧俗人民的支持下，仅用两天时间，就彻底平息了拉萨市区的叛乱。以后又平息了叛乱分子长期盘踞的山南地区的叛乱。流窜于其他地区的叛乱武装也相继瓦解。

After the Dalai Lama left Lhasa, about 7,000 rebels gathered to wage a full-scale attack on the Party, government and army institutions before dawn on March 20. The PLA, driven beyond its forbearance, launched under orders a counterattack at 10 am the same day. With the support of patriotic Tibetan monks and lay people, the PLA completely put down the armed rebellion in Lhasa within two days. Before long, the PLA suppressed the armed rebellion in Shannan, where the rebels had been entrenched for a long time. Armed rebel forces who fled to other places were dissolved.

　　人民解放军在平叛过程中军纪严明，得到广大僧俗人士的衷心拥护。他们主动配合人民解放军平息叛乱，各地群众纷纷组织自卫队、联防队、保畜队等自卫性组织，为平叛大军修路、运输、送信、引路、烧茶送水、站岗放哨、救治伤员，使叛乱分子陷于孤立。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The PLA was highly disciplined in the course of quelling the rebellion and this won the wholehearted support of Buddhist monks and laymen. They took the initiative to help the PLA in putting down the rebellion. Various self-defense, joint-defense, livestock protection and other forms of joint-defense teams sprang up in various places to build roads, provide transport, dispatch mail, serve as guides, boil tea, send water, stand sentry and give first-aid to wounded PLA soldiers, effectively isolating the rebels.

三、达赖集团的分裂活动和中央政府的政策

III. The Dalai Clique's Separatist Activities and the Central Government's Policy

　　达赖集团是怎样进行分裂活动的

How Does the Dalai Clique Carry Out His Separatist

Activities?

　　达赖喇嘛逃亡国外后，中央政府从维护祖国统一和民族团结的大局出发，对他采取了耐心等待的态度。他的全国人大常委会副委员长职务，一直保留到1964年。但是达赖喇嘛在国外反华势力和西藏分裂主义分子的包围下，完全背弃了自己曾经表示过的爱国立场，从事了大量分裂祖国的活动。

Starting from the point of maintaining the unification of the motherland and national unity, the central government adopted an attitude of patient waiting towards the Dalai Lama after he fled abroad. His position as a vice-chairman of the NPC Standing Committee was preserved until 1964. However, surrounded by foreign anti-China forces and Tibetan separatists, the Dalai Lama completely renounced the patriotic stand which he once expressed and engaged in numerous activities to split the motherland.

　　——公开鼓吹“西藏是独立国家”。1959年6月，达赖在印度穆索里发表声明，称“西藏实际上曾经一向是独立的”。1991年3月，达赖访问英国时向报界宣称，西藏“是当今世界上被占领的一个最大的国家”。他多次妄称“实现西藏独立的任务落到我们西藏境内外全体西藏人民的身上。”微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

-- Publicly advocating that "Tibet is an independent state." In June 1959, the Dalai Lama issued a statement in Mussoorie, India which read "Tibet had actually been independent." In March 1991, during his visit to Britain, the Dalai Lama told the press that Tibet "is the biggest occupied country in the world today." He proclaimed on many occasions that "the task of realizing the independence of Tibet has fallen upon all Tibetans in and outside Tibet."

　　——成立“流亡政府”。六十年代初期，达赖集团在印度达兰萨拉召开“西藏人民代表大会”，成立了所谓“西藏流亡政府”，颁布所谓“宪法”，规定“由达赖任国家首脑”，“大臣由达赖任命”，“政府的一切工作均应由达赖同意方被认可”。1991年达赖集团修改后的所谓“宪法”中，仍规定达赖是“国家首脑”。达赖及其所谓“流亡政府”向国外藏胞长期征收“独立税”，在一些国家设立“办事机构”，出版发行宣扬“西藏独立”的刊物和书籍，从事“西藏独立”的政治活动。

-- Setting up the "government in exile." In the early 1960s, the Dalai clique convened the "people's congress of Tibet" in Dharamsala, India, which established the so-called "Tibetan government in exile." A so-called "constitution" was promulgated, which states that "the Dalai Lama is the head of state," "the ministers shall be appointed by the Dalai Lama" and "all work of the government shall not be approved without the consent of the Dalai Lama." The 1991 revised "constitution" of the Dalai clique still stipulates that the Dalai is "the head of the state." The Dalai Lama and his so-called "government in exile" kept levying an "independence tax" on Tibetans residing abroad, established "offices" in some countries, published magazines and books advocating "Tibetan independence" and engaged in political activities for "Tibetan independence."

　　——重新组建叛乱武装。1960年9月，达赖集团在尼泊尔木斯塘重新组建了“四水六岗卫教军”，在中国边境进行了长达十年之久的军事袭扰活动，其首任总指挥恩珠仓·公布扎西在其回忆录《四水六岗》中写道，“组织了一系列向中国哨所的进攻”，“有时，一二百人的西藏游击队的活动深入中国占领区达一百英里”。达赖撰文对公布扎西大肆赞扬。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

-- Reorganizing the armed rebel forces. In September 1960, the Dalai clique re-organized the "religion guards of the four rivers and six ranges" in Mustang, Nepal, which carried on military harassment activities along the Chinese border for ten years. Its first commander-in-chief Anzhugcang Goinbo Zhaxi wrote in his memoirs Four Rivers and Six Ranges that "a series of attacks were organized on Chinese outposts" and "sometimes, 100 or 200 Tibetan guerrillas went as far as 100 miles into the area occupied by the Chinese." The Dalai Lama wrote articles praising Goinbo Zhaxi.

　　——造谣诽谤，策动骚乱。达赖在出国后的三十多年里，不顾事实，编造了大量诸如“‘十七条协议’是武力逼迫下强加给西藏的”；“汉人屠杀了120万藏人”；“由于汉人移民，藏族在西藏成了少数”；“共产党在西藏强行对妇女实行计划生育、堕胎”；政府反对宗教自由，迫害宗教人士；藏族传统文化艺术遭到灭绝危险；西藏自然资源受到严重破坏；西藏环境受到污染等等谎言，蓄意挑拨民族关系，煽动西藏群众反对中央政府。1987年9月至1989年3月拉萨发生的多起骚乱事件，就是在达赖集团的煽动和派遣回藏的叛乱分子策划下挑起的，这些骚乱给西藏人民的生命财产造成严重损失。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

-- Spreading rumors and calumnies and plotting riots. Ignoring facts, the Dalai Lama fabricated numerous lies to sow dissension among the various nationalities and incite the Tibetan people to oppose the central government during his 30-year self-exile abroad. He said that "the 17-Article Agreement was imposed on Tibet under armed force"; "the Hans have massacred 1.2 million Tibetans"; "owing to Han immigration, the Tibetans have become a minority in Tibet"; "the Communists in Tibet force women to practice birth control and abortion"; the government opposes religious freedom and persecutes religious people; traditional Tibetan culture and art are in danger of extinction; the natural resources in Tibet have been seriously depleted; there is severe environmental pollution in Tibet, etc. The riots in Lhasa from September 1987 to March 1989 were incited by the Dalai clique and plotted by rebels who were sent back to Tibet. The riots incurred severe losses to the lives and property of Tibetans.

　　达赖的言行表明，他并不象他自己所声称的那样，仅仅是一个宗教领袖，而已成为在国外长期从事分裂祖国活动的政治头目。

The Dalai's words and deeds have showed that he is no longer only a religious leader as he claims. On the contrary, he has become the political leader engaged in long-term divisive activities abroad.

　　“西藏独立”不容讨论

'Tibetan Independence' Brooks No Discussion

　　中央政府对达赖喇嘛的政策是一贯的，希望他放弃分裂，回到爱国统一的立场上来。

The central government has adopted a consistent policy towards the Dalai Lama. It urges him to renounce separatism and return to the stand of patriotism and unity.

　　1978年12月28日，中国领导人邓小平在会见美联社记者时说，“达赖可以回来，但他要作为中国公民”，“我们的要求就一个——爱国，而且我们提出爱国不分先后”，表明了中央政府欢迎达赖喇嘛回归祖国的态度。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

On December 28, 1978, the Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping said to AP correspondents that "the Dalai Lama may return, but only as a Chinese citizen"; "we have but one demand -- patriotism. And we say that anyone is welcome, whether he embraces patriotism early or late." This indicates the central government's attitude of welcoming the Dalai Lama back to the motherland.

　　1979年2月28日达赖喇嘛派代表回国与中央政府进行接触。3月12日，邓小平在会见达赖喇嘛的代表时明确表示：“欢迎达赖喇嘛回来，回来以后还可以出去”。对于中央政府同达赖喇嘛方面谈判的问题，邓小平明确指出：“现在是以西藏作为一个国家与中央对话，还是西藏是中国的一部分来讨论处理一些问题？这是个现实问题。”“根本问题是，西藏是中国的一部分，对与不对，要用这个标准来判断。”

The Dalai Lama sent representatives to Beijing to contact the central government on February 28, 1979. On March 12, Deng Xiaoping met the Dalai Lama's representatives and said to them, "The Dalai Lama is welcome to come back. He can go out again after his return." With regard to the central government's negotiation with the side of the Dalai Lama, Deng pointed out, "Now, whether the dialogue to discuss and settle problems will be between the central government and Tibet as a state or Tibet as a part of China? This is a practical question." "Essentially Tibet is a part of China. This is the criterion for judging right or wrong."

　　为了通过谈判，促成达赖喇嘛及其追随者放弃分裂主张，回归祖国，中央政府进行了种种努力。自1980年以来，中央领导人多次接见了达赖喇嘛派回的代表，多次重申中央对于达赖喇嘛的政策。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The central government did everything possible to persuade the Dalai Lama and his followers, through negotiations, to give up their separatism and return to the motherland. The central government leaders have since 1980 met a number of delegations sent back by the Dalai Lama and reiterated on many occasions the central government's policy towards the Dalai Lama.

　　为了满足国内外藏族群众之间探亲和交往的要求，中央政府制定和实行了来去自由的政策，并表明了爱国一家，爱国不分先后，既往不咎的态度。从1979年8月到1980年9月，中央政府有关部门接待了达赖喇嘛先后派出的三批参观团和两批亲属回国参观。达赖喇嘛在国外的大部分亲属曾回国参观、探亲，自1979年以来，西藏和其他藏区已经接待了回国探亲、参观旅游的国外藏胞8000余人，安置了回国定居的藏胞近2000人。

To satisfy the desire of both local and overseas Tibetans for visits and contacts, the central government has formulated and practiced the policy of free movement in and out of the country. It has also made clear that all patriots belong to one big family, whether they rally to the common cause now or later, and bygones can be bygones. From August 1979 to September 1980, central government departments concerned received three visiting delegations and two groups of relatives sent by the Dalai Lama. Most of the Dalai Lama's kin residing abroad have made return visits to China. Since 1979, Tibet and other Tibetan-inhabited areas have received some 8,000 overseas Tibetans who came to visit relatives or for sightseeing, and helped settle nearly 2,000 Tibetan compatriots.

　　令人遗憾的是，达赖不仅没有接受中央的好意，反而变本加厉地进行分裂活动。1987年9月，达赖在美国国会人权小组委员会发表了所谓西藏地位问题的“五点计划”，继续鼓吹“西藏独立”，煽动和策划了拉萨的多次严重骚乱事件。1988年6月，达赖提出了所谓解决西藏问题的“斯特拉斯堡建议”，这个建议以所谓西藏历来是独立国家为前提，将一国内部的民族区域自治问题变成所谓的宗主国与附庸国、保护国与被保护国的关系，否认中国对西藏的主权，变相搞西藏独立。这原是帝国主义为了瓜分中国玩弄过的阴谋，当然受到中央政府的拒绝。中央明确表示：“中国对西藏的主权不容否定，西藏独立不行，半独立不行，变相独立也不行。”

Regretfully, the Dalai Lama did not draw on the good will of the central government. Instead, he further intensified his separatist activities. At a meeting of the Human Rights Subcommittee of the US Congress held in September 1987, the Dalai Lama put forward a "five-point proposal" regarding the so-called status of Tibet. He continued to advocate "Tibetan Independence," and instigate and plot a number of riots in Lhasa. In June 1988, the Dalai Lama raised a so-called "Strasbourg proposal" for the solution of the Tibet issue. On the premise that Tibet "had always been" an independent state, the proposal interpreted the issue of a regional national autonomy within a country as a relationship between a suzerain and a vassal state, and between a protector and a protected state, thus denying China's sovereignty over Tibet and advocating the independence of Tibet in a disguised way. The central government naturally rejected the proposal, because it was a conspiracy the imperialists once hatched in order to carve up China. The Chinese government solemnly declared, "China's sovereignty over Tibet brooks no denial. Of Tibet there could be no independence, nor semi-independence, nor independence in disguise."

　　尽管如此，中央政府仍然希望达赖悬崖勒马，回心转意。1989年初，班禅大师圆寂，考虑到历世达赖、班禅互为师徒的历史宗教关系，经中央政府同意，中国佛教协会邀请达赖喇嘛回国参加班禅大师的追悼活动。中国佛教协会会长赵朴初亲自将邀请信交到达赖喇嘛的私人代表手中。这给达赖喇嘛提供了一个在流亡三十年之后，同国内佛教界人士见面的良机。然而，达赖喇嘛拒绝了这次邀请。

Nevertheless, the central government still hopes that the Dalai Lama would rein in at the brink of the precipice and change his mind. In early 1989, the 10th Bainqen Lama passed away. Taking into account the historical religious ties between various generations of the Dalai Lama and the Bainqen Lama as teacher and student, the Buddhist Association of China, with the approval of the central government, invited the Dalai Lama to come back to attend the Bainqen Lama's memorial ceremonies. President Zhao Puchu of the association handed a letter of invitation to a personal representative of the Dalai Lama, providing the Dalai Lama with a good opportunity to meet with people in the Buddhist circles in China after 30 years of exile. But the Dalai Lama rejected the invitation.

　　1989年，在新的国际反华风浪中，挪威诺贝尔和平奖委员会怀着明显的政治目的，把1989年诺贝尔和平奖授予达赖喇嘛。达赖和西藏分裂主义分子得到了极大的支持。此后，达赖周游世界，到处鼓吹分裂。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

As 1989 witnessed a new international anti-China wave, the Nobel Peace Prize Committee in Norway, with clearly political motives, awarded the 1989 Nobel Peace Prize to the Dalai Lama, giving its strong support to the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan separatists. Since then, the Dalai Lama has travelled the world, advocating Tibet's separation from China.

　　与此同时，达赖喇嘛进一步加紧煽动和策划西藏地区的骚乱活动。1990年1月19日，他通过英国的广播说：如果北京政府一年之内不开始会谈他的西藏自治计划，他将不得不改变对中国妥协的立场，很多年轻的西藏人主张使用武力。1991年4月4日，达赖通过“美国之音”藏语广播说：“要进一步加强西藏独立的所有事情”1991年10月10日，达赖又通过“美国之音”藏语节目进行煽动说：“当前大批汉人涌入西藏，使很多藏族青年找不到工作，这对西藏社会造成更加不安定的因素，因此再次爆发动乱的可能性很大。”

The Dalai Lama simultaneously intensified his efforts to incite and plot riots in Tibet. On January 19, 1990, he said over the BBC: If the Beijing government fails to hold talks with him on his plan of Tibet's autonomy within a year, he will have to change his stand of compromise with China; many young Tibetans stand for the use of force. On April 4, 1991, the Dalai Lama said in the Tibetan language program of the Voice of America, "All matters shall be further strengthened for Tibet's independence." Again on October 10 the same year, he tried instigation in a similar program, "At present, so large a number of Hans are pouring into Tibet that many young Tibetans cannot find jobs. This adds a further element of instability in the Tibetan society. Therefore, new riots are quite possible."

　　正是由于达赖喇嘛一直不肯放弃“西藏独立”的主张，继续在国内外进行分裂祖国的活动，使中央政府和达赖喇嘛代表的接触没有取得成果。

It is because the Dalai Lama sticks to his position of "Tibetan independence" and continues his efforts to split the motherland in and outside China that contacts between the central government and the representatives of the Dalai Lama have yielded no results.

　　1991年5月19日，中华人民共和国国务院总理李鹏在西藏和平解放四十周年前夕答新华社记者问中指出：“中央政府对达赖喇嘛的政策是一贯的，现在也没有变化。我们的根本原则只有一条，即西藏是中国不可分割的一部分。在这个根本问题上没有任何付价还价的余地。中央政府一贯表示愿意同达赖喇嘛进行接触，但是达赖喇嘛必须停止从事分裂祖国的活动，改变‘西藏独立’的立场，除了‘西藏独立’不能谈，其他问题都可以谈。”微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In an interview with Xinhua News Agency reporters on May 19, 1991, on the eve of the 40th anniversary of Tibet's peaceful liberation, Premier Li Peng of the State Council of the People's Republic of China pointed out, "The central government's policy towards the Dalai Lama has been consistent and remains unchanged. We have only one fundamental principle, namely, Tibet is an inalienable part of China. On this fundamental issue there is no room for haggling. The central government has always expressed its willingness to have contact with the Dalai Lama, but he must stop activities to split the motherland and change his position for 'Tibetan independence.' All matters except 'Tibetan independence' can be discussed."

　　中央政府愿意与达赖喇嘛接触谈判的大门始终是敞开的。中央政府对达赖喇嘛的政策也是十分明确的。为了对历史负责，对中华民族负责，对包括西藏人民在内的十一亿中国人民负责，中央政府在维护祖国统一这个基本问题上决不会有丝毫让步。企图依靠外国势力达到“西藏独立”、分裂祖国的活动是背叛祖国、背叛包括藏族在内的整个中华民族的可耻行径，中央政府坚决加以谴责，决不允许其得逞。中央政府将继续执行建设西藏、发展西藏的一系列特殊政策和优惠措施，以增强民族团结，繁荣经济文化，改善人民生活。任何破坏西藏安定团结的活动，任何制造骚乱、策动闹事的违法行为，都是违背西藏人民根本利益的，必将受到严厉的打击。

The central government is willing to contact and negotiate with the Dalai Lama; the door remains open. The central government's policy towards the Dalai Lama is also clear. To be responsible for the history, the Chinese nation and its 1.1 billion people, including the Tibetan people, the central government will make not the slightest concession on the fundamental issue of maintaining the motherland's unification. Any activity attempting to realize "Tibetan independence" and split the motherland by relying on foreign forces is an ignominious move betraying the motherland and the whole Chinese nation including the Tibetan nationality. The central government resolutely denounces this kind of action and will never allow it to succeed. The central government will continue to implement a series of special policies and preferential measures to promote the construction and development of Tibet so as to enhance national unity, construct a prosperous economy, enrich culture and improve the people's livelihood. Any activity sabotaging stability and unity in Tibet and any unlawful deed creating disturbance and inciting riots runs against the basic interests of the Tibetan people and will be cracked down on relentlessly.

　　只要达赖喇嘛放弃分裂主张，承认西藏是中国不可分割的一部分，中央政府随时愿意与达赖喇嘛进行谈判，热诚欢迎达赖喇嘛早日回归祖国，为维护祖国统一和民族团结，为西藏人民的富裕、幸福做些有益的事情。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

So long as the Dalai Lama can give up his divisive stand and admit that Tibet is an inalienable part of China, the central government is willing to hold talks at any time with him. The Dalai Lama is warmly welcome to return to the embrace of the motherland at an early date and do some work that is conducive to maintaining the motherland's unification, the national unity, as well as the affluent and happy lives of the Tibetan people.

四、旧西藏的封建农奴制

IV. Feudal Serfdom in Old Tibet

　　1959年民主改革前，西藏长期处于政教合一、僧侣和贵族专政的封建农奴制社会，其黑暗、残酷比中世纪欧洲的农奴制度有过之而无不及。西藏的农奴主主要是官家、贵族和寺院上层僧侣三大领主。他们不到西藏人口的5%，却占有西藏的全部耕地、牧场、森林、山川以及大部分牲畜。据十七世纪清朝初年统计，当时西藏实有耕地300多万克（15克相当于一公顷），其中官家占30.9%，贵族占29.6%，寺庙和上层僧侣占39.5%。1959年民主改革前，全西藏有世袭贵族197家，大贵族25家，其中最大的贵族有七、八家，每家占有几十个庄园，几万克土地。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Before the Democratic Reform of 1959 Tibet had long been a society of feudal serfdom under the despotic religion-political rule of lamas and nobles, a society which was darker and more cruel than the European serfdom of the Middle Ages. Tibet's serf-owners were principally the three major estate-holders: local administrative officials, nobles and upper-ranking lamas in monasteries. Although they accounted for less than 5 percent of Tibet's population, they owned all of Tibet's farmland, pastures, forests, mountains and rivers as well as most livestock. Statistics released in the early years of the Qing Dynasty in the 17th century indicate that Tibet then had more than 3 million ke of farmland (15 ke equal to 1 hectare), of which 30.9 percent was owned by officials, 29.6 percent by nobles, and 39.5 percent by monasteries and upper-ranking lamas. Before the 1959 Democratic Reform, Tibet had 197 hereditary noble families and 25 big noble families, with the biggest numbering seven to eight, each holding dozens of manors and tens of thousand of ke of land.

　　农奴超过旧西藏人口的90%，藏语叫“差巴”（即领种份地，向农奴主支差役的人）和“堆穷”（意为冒烟的小户）。他们不占有土地，没有人身自由，都依附在某一领主的庄园中为生。此外还有占人口5%的“朗生”，他们是世代家奴，没有任何生产资料，也没有丝毫人身自由。

Serfs made up 90 percent of old Tibet's population. They were called tralpa in Tibetan (namely people who tilled plots of land assigned to them and had to provide corvee labor for the serf-owners) and duiqoin (small households with chimneys emitting smoke). They had no land or personal freedom, and the survival of each of them depended on an estate-holder's manor. In addition, nangzan who comprised 5 percent of the population were hereditary household slaves, deprived of any means of production and personal freedom.

　　农奴主占有农奴的人身，把农奴当作自己的私有财产随意支配，可以买卖、转让、赠送、抵债和交换。据史料记载，1943年，大贵族车门·罗布旺杰把100名农奴卖给了止贡地区噶珠康萨的一名僧官，每个农奴的价钱是60两藏银（约合四块银元）；他还把400农奴送给功德林寺，抵了3000品藏银（约合一万银元）的债。农奴主掌握着农奴生、死、婚、嫁大权。不是同一农奴主的男女农奴结婚要缴纳“赎身费”，有的是采取男换男，女换女的交换，有的是婚嫁后，夫妻双方的领属关系不变，将来生男孩归夫方领主，生女孩归妻方领主。农奴的子女一出生，就登记入册，注定了终身为农奴的命运。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Serf-owners literally possessed the living bodies of their serfs. Since serfs were at their disposal as their private property, they could trade and transfer them, present them as gifts, make them mortgages for a debt and exchange them. According to historical records, in 1943 the aristocrat Chengmoim Norbu Wanggyai sold 100 serfs to a monk official at Garzhol Kamsa, in Zhigoin area, at the cost of 60 liang of Tibetan silver (about four silver dollars) per serf. He also sent 400 serfs to the Gundelin Monastery as mortgage for a debt of 3,000 pin Tibetan silver (about 10,000 silver dollars). Serf-owners had a firm grip on the birth, death and marriage of serfs. Male and female serfs not belonging to the same owner had to pay "redemption fees" before they could marry. In some cases, an exchange was made with a man swapped for man and a woman for woman. In other cases, after a couple wedded, the ownership of both husband and wife remained unchanged, but their sons would belong to the husband's owner and their daughters to the wife's owner. Children of serfs were registered the moment they were born, setting their life-long fate as serfs.

　　农奴主用差役和高利贷对农奴进行残酷的剥削。旧西藏的差税制度十分残酷，有载入注册籍的永久性差税，还有临时加派的差税。据不完全统计，仅噶厦（西藏地方政府）征收的差税种类就达200多种。农奴为噶厦和庄园主支的差，占农奴户劳动量的50%以上，高者可达70%至80%。据民主改革前调查，属于十四世达赖的摄政大扎的达隆绛庄园共有土地1445克，全劳力和半劳力农奴计81个，全年共支差21260天，折合劳动量为67.3人全年服劳役，即83%的农奴全年无偿地为农奴主支差服役。

Serf-owners ruthlessly exploited serfs through corvee and usury. The corvee tax system of old Tibet was very cruel. Permanent corvee tax was registered and there were also temporary additional corvee taxes. Incomplete statistics indicate the existence of more than 200 categories of corvee taxes levied by the Gaxag (Tibetan local government). The corvee assigned by Gaxag and manorial lords accounted for over 50 percent of the labor of serf households, and could go as high as 70-80 percent. According to a survey conducted before the Democratic Reform, the Darongqang Manor owned by Regent Dagzhag of the 14th Dalai Lama had a total of 1,445 ke of land, and 81 able-bodied and semi-able-bodied serfs. They were assigned a total of 21,260 corvee days for the whole year, the equivalent of an entire year's labor by 67.3 people. In effect, 83 percent of the serfs had to do corvee for one full year.

　　农奴成年累月地辛勤劳动，却连温饱也得不到保障，经常要靠借高利贷勉强糊口。高利贷年利率一般都很高，向寺庙借钱利率为30%，借粮为20%或25%；向贵族借钱利率为20%，借粮为20%或25%。

The serfs engaged in hard labor year in and year out and yet had no guaranteed food or clothing. Often they had to rely on money borrowed at usury to keep body and soul together. The annual interest rate for usurious loans was very high, while that for money borrowed from monasteries was 30 percent, and for grain 20 or 25 percent. Monetary loans from nobles exacted a 20 percent interest, while that for grain amounted to 20 or 25 percent.

　　噶厦设有几个放债机构，历代达赖喇嘛也有两个专管放债的机构。据1950年达赖的两个放债机构有关帐簿的不完全记载，共放高利贷藏银303.85万两。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Gaxag had several money-lending institutions, and the Dalai Lama of various generations had two organizations specialized in lending money. Incomplete records in the account books of the two cash-lending bodies of the Dalai Lama in 1950 show that they had lent out about 3.0385 million liang of Tibetan silver in usurious loans.

　　高利贷利滚利，造成永远还不完的“子孙债”和以借贷人和担保人全部破产而告终的“连保债”。墨竹工卡县有一名叫次仁贡布的农奴，他的祖父曾向色拉寺借了50克（一克合14公斤）粮食，祖父、父亲和他三代人还利息达77年，总共付利息粮3000多克，可领主说他仍欠粮10万克。东嘎宗有个叫丹增的农奴，1941年借了农奴主一克青稞，到1951年，农奴主要他还600克，他只好逃亡，妻子被逼死，七岁的儿子被抓去抵债。

Snowballing interest of usurious loans created debts which could never be repaid by even succeeding generations and debts involving a guarantor resulted in the bankruptcy of both the debtor and the guarantor. The grandfather of a serf named Cering Goinbo of Maizhokunggar County once borrowed 50 ke of grain (1 ke equal to 14 kg) from the Sera Monastery. In 77 years the three generations had paid more than 3,000 ke of grain for the interest but the serf-owner still claimed that Cering Goinbo owed him 100,000 ke of grain. There was another serf named Dainzin in Donggar County who in 1941 borrowed one ke of qingke barley from his master. In 1951 when he was asked to repay 600 ke, he was forced to flee, his wife was driven to death and his seven-year-old son was taken away to repay the debt by labor.

　　西藏地方统治者制定了一系列法律以维护农奴主的利益。旧西藏通行了几百年的《十三法典》和《十六法典》，将人分成三等九级，明确规定人们在法律上的地位不平等。法典规定：“勿与贤哲贵胄相争”，“下打上者、小官与大官争执者犯重罪，均应拘捕”，“不受主人约束者逮捕之”，“百姓碰撞官长者逮捕之”，“向王宫喊冤，不合体统，应逮捕鞭击之”等等。不同等级的人触犯同一刑律，其量刑标准和处置方法大不相同。杀人赔偿命价律中规定：“人有等级之分，因此命价也有高低”上等上级的人如王子、大活佛等，其命价为尸体等重的黄金；而下等下级的人如妇女、屠夫、猎户、匠人等，其命价为草绳一根。伤人赔偿律中规定：仆人使主人受伤的，应斫掉仆人的手或脚；主人打伤仆人，延医治疗即可，不给赔偿费。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In order to safeguard the interests of serf-owners, Tibetan local rulers formulated a series of laws. The 13-Article Code and 16-Article Code, which were enforced for several hundred years in old Tibet, divided people into three classes and nine ranks. They clearly stipulated that people were unequal in legal status. The codes stipulated, "It is forbidden to quarrel with a worthy, sage, noble and descendant of the ruler"; "persons of the lower rank who attack those of the upper rank, and a junior official who quarrels with a senior official commit a serious crime and so should be detained"; "anyone who resists a master's control should be arrested"; "a commoner who offends an official should be arrested"; "anyone who voices grievances at the palace, behaving disgracefully, should be arrested and whipped." The standards for measuring punishment and the methods for dealing with people of different classes and ranks who violated the same criminal law were quite different. In the law concerning the penalty for murder, it was written, "As people are divided into different classes and ranks, the value of a life correspondingly differs." The lives of people of the highest rank of the upper class, such as a prince or leading Living Buddha, are calculated in gold to the same weight as the dead body. The lives of people of the lowest rank of the lower class, such as women, butchers, hunters and craftsmen, are worth a straw rope. In the law concerning compensation for injury, it was stipulated that a servant who injures his master should have his hands or feet chopped off; a master who injures a servant is only responsible for the medical treatment for the wound, with no other compensation required.

　　农奴主运用成文法或习惯法，设立监狱或私牢。地方政府有法庭、监狱，大寺庙也设法庭、监狱，领主还可在自己的庄园私设监狱。刑罚极为野蛮残酷，如剜目、割耳、断手、剁脚、抽筋、投水等。在西藏最大的寺庙之一甘丹寺就有许多手铐、脚镣、棍棒和用来剜目、抽筋等的残酷刑具。在北京民族文化宫的“西藏社会历史资料展”中，有当年被农奴主砍下的农奴肢体等许多实物和照片。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Making use of written or common law, the serf-owners set up penitentiaries or private jails. Local governments had law courts and prisons, as had large monasteries. Estate-holders could build private prisons on their own manor ground. Punishments were extremely savage and cruel, and included gouging out the eyes; cutting off ears, hands and feet; pulling out tendons; and throwing people into water. In the Gandan Monastery, one of the largest in Tibet, there were many handcuffs, fetters, clubs and other cruel instruments of torture used for gouging out eyes and ripping out tendons. Many materials and photos showing limbs of serfs mutilated by serf-owners in those years are kept in the hall housing the Tibetan Social and Historical Relics Exhibition in the Beijing Cultural Palace of Nationalities.

　　在漫长的封建农奴制社会里，西藏广大农、牧奴政治上受压迫，经济上受剥削，动辄遭到迫害。农奴中流传着这样的话：“能带走的只是自己的身影，能留下的只有自己的脚印。”可以说，旧西藏是世界上侵犯人权最为严重的地区之一。

Under the centuries-long feudal serfdom, the Tibetan serfs were politically oppressed, economically exploited and frequently persecuted. A saying circulated among serfs, "All a serf can carry away is his own shadow, and all he can leave behind is his footprints." Old Tibet can be said to have been one of the world's regions witnessing the most serious violations of human rights.

　　面对封建农奴制度的残酷统治，西藏劳动人民从未停止过反抗斗争。他们采用请愿、逃亡、抗租抗差，直至武装斗争等形式争取自己的人身权利。但是，他们的要求遭到三大领主的残酷镇压。旧西藏法律规定：“民反者均犯重法”，不但本人处死，而且家产没收，妻子为奴。五世达赖曾经发过一道谕令：“拉日孜巴的百姓听我的命令……如果你们再企图找自由，找舒服，我已授权拉日孜巴对你们施行砍手、砍脚、挖眼、打、杀”。这道谕令多次被后来的当权者重申。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Despite the cruel rule of the feudal serfdom, Tibetan laboring people never ceased their resistance struggles. They strove for their personal rights by making petitions, fleeing, resisting rent and corvee and even waging armed struggle. However, they were subjected to ruthless suppression by the three big estate-holders. The law of old Tibet stated, "All civilians who rebel all commit felonies." In such incidences not only the rebel himself would be killed, but his family property would be confiscated and his wife be made a slave. The 5th Dalai Lama once issued the order, "Commoners of Lhari Ziba listen to my order: .... I have authorized Lhari Ziba to chop off your hands and feet, gouge out your eyes, and beat and kill you if you again attempt to look for freedom and comfort." This order was reiterated on many occasions by his successors in power.

五、人民获得了人身自由

V. The People Gain Personal Freedom

　　1951年，中央人民政府和西藏地方政府签订了关于和平解放西藏办法的“十七条协议”，西藏获得和平解放，从而为西藏人民争取平等的人身权利带来了希望。1959年叛乱平息后，中央人民政府顺应西藏人民的愿望，在西藏进行了民主改革，废除了极端腐朽、黑暗的封建农奴制度，百万农奴和奴隶翻身解放，不再被作为农奴主的个人财产加以买卖、转让、交换、抵债，不再被农奴主强迫劳动，从此获得了人身自由的权利。这是西藏历史上划时代的伟大变革。

The central people's government and the local government of Tibet signed in 1951 the 17-Article Agreement on measures for the peaceful liberation of Tibet, and Tibet was peacefully liberated. This brought hope to the Tibetan people in their struggle for equal personal rights. After the quelling of the armed rebellion in 1959, the central people's government, in compliance with the wishes of the Tibetan people, conducted the Democratic Reform in Tibet and abolished the extremely decadent and dark feudal serfdom. The million serfs and slaves were emancipated. They were no longer regarded as the personal property of serf-owners who could use them for transactions, transfer, mortgage for a debt or exchange or exact their toil. From that time on they gained the right to personal freedom. This was a great, epoch-making change in Tibetan history.

　　旧西藏的法典被废除，人不再分为三等九级，各种野蛮刑罚被禁止，私设的监狱被全部拆除。新中国宪法和法律，保障了西藏人民人人享有生命与人身安全的权利。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Now old Tibet's codes have been abrogated. Citizens are no longer divided into three classes and nine ranks. All sorts of barbarous punishments are prohibited and privately established prisons have all been dismantled. New China's Constitution and laws guarantee that every Tibetan enjoys the right to subsistence and personal safety.

　　民主改革废除了生产资料的农奴主所有制，参加叛乱的农奴主占有的耕地无偿分给了无地的农奴和奴隶。山南乃东县凯松溪卡的443位农民分得了1696克土地。当旧的地契、债约被扔进火堆时，昔日的农奴们围着火堆跳起舞蹈。75岁的索朗说：“过去种主人的地，白天黑夜都成了人家的人，半夜叫支差不敢等到天明，现在分地给我，真觉得睡觉香、吃饭甜，真想多活几年，看看今后的好日子。”对未参加叛乱的农奴的土地和其他生产资料实行赎买政策，1300多户未参加叛乱的农奴主和代理人的90万克土地和82万多头牲畜由国家支付赎买金4500多万元。

The Democratic Reform abolished the ownership of the means of production by serf-owners. The farmland originally occupied by those serf-owners involved in the armed rebellion was distributed free to landless serfs and slaves. In Kesong Manor, Nedong County in Shannan Prefecture, 443 peasants were given 1,696 ke of land. When the title deeds for land and debt contracts were thrown into the fire, the former serfs danced around the blaze. The 75-year-old Soinam said, "I used to till the land of my master, and I belonged to him day and night. When asked to do corvee at midnight, I dared not wait till dawn the next day. Now I have received land. I feel I can sleep well and have a good appetite. I really want to live several years longer so that I can see the happy future." A policy of redemption was introduced with regard to the land and other means of production of serf-owners who did not participate in the rebellion. The 900,000 ke of land and over 820,000 head of livestock of the 1,300 serf-owners and their agents, who did not participate in the rebellion, were redeemed by the state at a cost topping 45 million yuan.

　　西藏劳动人民再不受农奴主的沉重差税和高利贷剥削，劳动果实全部留归自己，生产积极性空前高涨。全区粮食产量1960年即比1959年增长了12.6%，牲畜存栏数增长了10%。西藏人民开始得到争取温饱的生存权利。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The Tibetan laboring people no longer suffer from the heavy corvee taxes and usurious exploitation by the serf-owners. The fruits of their labor all belong to themselves, and the enthusiasm of the Tibetan people for production became unprecedentedly high. The region's grain output in 1960 increased by 12.6 percent over 1959 and the number of livestock by 10 percent. The Tibetan people began to enjoy the right to subsistence, along with adequate food and clothing.

六、人民享有的政治权利

VI. The People Enjoy Political Rights

　　在旧西藏“政教合一”的封建领主专政的政治制度下，达赖喇嘛作为藏传佛教格鲁派的首领之一，兼任地方政府的首脑，集政教大权于一身。原西藏地方政府的官制是僧俗双轨制，行政机构中既有俗官，也有僧官，僧官大于俗官，某些机构只有僧官而不设俗官。寺院在处理政治事务方面，享有特殊的权力。在召开商讨重大事务的“官员扩大会议”时，要有三大寺（即甘丹寺、色拉寺、哲蚌寺）和四大林（即功德林、丹吉林、策墨林、次觉林等四座大寺庙）的住持参加。形成决议后，需要地方政府和三大寺共同加盖印章方能生效。

Under the political system combining religion with politics and despotic rule by feudal estate-holders in old Tibet, the Dalai Lama was one of the leaders of the Gelug Sect of Tibetan Buddhism and also head of the Tibetan local government. He held both political and religious power. The official system of the former Tibetan local government was a dual one of monk and lay officials. In the administrative organs, there were both monk and lay officials, with the former higher than the latter in rank. But there were monk officials in some organizations. Monasteries enjoyed special jurisdiction in handling political affairs. Abbots of the three major monasteries (Gandan, Sera and Zhaibung) and the four large ones (Gundeling, Dangyailing, Cemoinling and Cejoiling) participated in all "enlarged meetings of officials" to discuss important events. Resolutions adopted at the meetings became effective only when they bore the stamps of the local government and the three major monasteries.

　　民主改革结束了“政教合一”的政治制度，实行人民民主的政治制度。按照新中国宪法，西藏人民同全国各族人民一样，成为国家的主人，享有法律所规定的一切政治权利。

The Democratic Reform in 1959 put an end to the political system of combining religious with political rule and introduced the new political system of people's democracy. Under the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, the Tibetan people, like the people of various nationalities throughout the country, have become masters of the country and enjoy full political rights provided for by the law.

　　西藏自治区年满十八周岁的公民，不分民族、种族、性别、职业、家庭出身、宗教信仰、教育程度、财产状况和居住期限，都有选举权和被选举权。他们直接选举县、区、乡、镇人民代表大会的代表，这些代表又选举出席全国和自治区、市人民代表大会的代表。通过各级人民代表大会，人民行使管理国家和地方事务的权利。西藏人民为获得当家作主人的权利而政治热情高涨，积极地行使自己的权利。1988年西藏自治区第五届人民代表大会代表选举时，据拉萨、那曲、日喀则、林芝、山南五个地市统计，参选率达93.88%。为了使不识字的群众也能参加选举，不少地方群众用豆子代替选票，他们同意谁，就在那位候选人背后的碗中投进一颗豆子，谁得的豆子多，谁就当选。目前，以藏族为主的当地民族代表，在全区县人大代表总数占95%以上，在自治区人大代表中占82%以上。全自治区75个县（市、区）的现任人民代表大会常务委员会主任绝大多数是昔日的农奴或奴隶。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Citizens of the Tibet Autonomous Region who have reached the age of 18 have the right to vote and to stand for election, regardless of their ethnic status, race, sex, occupation, family background, religious belief, education, property status, or length of residence. They can directly vote for deputies to the people's congresses of counties, districts, townships and towns. These deputies can in turn elect deputies to the national, autonomous regional and municipal people's congresses. The people exercise the power of managing the state and local affairs through the people's congresses at all levels. The political enthusiasm of the Tibetan people is high because they have obtained the right to be masters of their own affairs. They have actively exercised their rights. Statistics of Lhasa, Nagqu, Xigaze, Nyingchi and Shannan on the elections for deputies to the Fifth People's Congress of the Tibet Autonomous Region in 1988 show that 93.88 percent of the people there voted. To enable illiterates to participate, beans were used in place of ballots in many places. Voters placed beans in the bowls behind the back of the candidates of their choice. Those with the most beans went into office. Currently, deputies of the local ethnic minorities, with Tibetans as the main force, account for over 95 percent of the total local deputies to the people's congresses at the district and county levels and the figure is over 82 percent for those to the People's Congress of the Tibet Autonomous Region. Most of the current chairmen of the Standing Committees of the people's congresses of the 75 counties (cities and districts) in the autonomous region used to be serfs or slaves in old Tibet.

　　为了保证西藏各阶层、各界人士都能在社会政治生活中充分表达意见和发挥作用，1959年西藏即成立了“中国人民政治协商会议西藏委员会”。人民政协是中国共产党领导下的最广泛的爱国统一战线组织，是进行政治协商，实行互相监督，发扬社会主义民主的重要政治组织。政协的这种特点在西藏得到了充分的体现，西藏政协广泛吸收了藏族和其他民族各界人士参加。在这些人士当中，有不少是原西藏地方政府的爱国僧俗官员和宗教界上层人士，如昌都地区大活佛、现任全国政协副主席、西藏自治区人大常委会副主任帕巴拉·格列朗杰，原西藏大贵族、地方政府噶伦、现西藏政协副主席拉鲁·次旺多杰等。这些人士通过政治协商会议参政议政，帮助政府进行决策。在历届政协会议中，他们的提案涉及到民族，宗教、文教、科技、卫生、农业、牧业、林业、城乡建设、环境保护等各个方面，对于维护祖国统一，加强民族团结，反对民族分裂，继承和发展民族传统文化，加速发展西藏地方经济，推进改革开放等项工作，发挥了重要作用。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The Tibetan Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was set up in Tibet in 1959 to ensure that people of all social strata and of all walks of life can fully voice their opinions and play their roles in social and political life. The CPPCC, an organization of the broadest patriotic united front under the leadership of the Communist Party of China, is an important political organization conducting political consultation, implementing mutual supervision and developing socialist democracy. Its role has been brought into full play in Tibet. The CPPCC Tibetan Committee has drawn on the participation of the people of all social strata from Tibetan and other ethnic groups. Many of them were patriotic monk and secular officials of the former local government of Tibet and upper-class religious figures. They include Pagbalha Geleg Namgyai, the Great Living Buddha of Qamdo Prefecture, who is now vice-chairman of the CPPCC National Committee and vice-chairman of the Standing Committee of the People's Congress of the Tibet Autonomous Region; and Lhalu Cewang Doje, a former Tibetan noble man and a Galoin of the Tibetan local government, who is currently vice-chairman of the CPPCC Tibetan Committee. Through the political consultative conferences, these people have participated in the discussion and management of state affairs and helped the government in making decisions. Their motions raised at past conferences have involved ethnic groups, religion, culture and education, science and technology, public health, agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, urban and rural construction and environmental protection. They have played an important role in safeguarding the unification of the motherland, strengthening national unity, opposing national separation, inheriting and developing traditional national culture, speeding up development of Tibetan economy, and promoting reform and opening up.

　　根据中国宪法，西藏实行民族区域自治。早在1955年3月，中央政府就作出了成立西藏自治区筹备委员会的决定。1965年9月，在拉萨召开了西藏自治区第一届人民代表大会第一次会议，西藏自治区宣告正式成立。参加大会的藏族代表绝大多数是翻身农奴和奴隶，也有上层爱国人士和宗教界人士。会议选举阿沛·阿旺晋美为西藏自治区人民委员会主席。广大农奴和奴隶砸碎了封建农奴制的枷锁后，获得了政治平等权利和民族平等权利。

Tibet practices regional national autonomy in accordance with the Constitution of the People's Republic of China. In March 1955, the central government decided to set up the Preparatory Committee for the Tibet Autonomous Region. In September 1965, the First Session of the First People's Congress of the Tibet Autonomous Region was held in Lhasa and the establishment of the Tibet Autonomous Region was officially announced. Most deputies of the Tibetan nationality to the congress were emancipated serfs and slaves, as well as patriots from the upper strata and religious figures. At the congress, Ngapoi Nagwang Jigme was elected chairman of the People's Committee of the Tibet Autonomous Region. Having smashed the yoke of the feudal serfdom, the broad masses of serfs and slaves obtained political and national equal rights.

　　《中华人民共和国民族区域自治法》规定：“民族自治地方的人民代表大会有权依照当地民族的政治、经济和文化的特点，制定自治条例和单行条例。”西藏自治区人民代表大会根据民族区域自治法所赋予的权利，从1965年至今，已经制定60余项符合西藏实际情况、维护西藏人民利益的地方性法规、条例、决定和决议，内容涉及政治、经济、文化、教育等各个方面。例如：《西藏自治区人民代表大会议事规则》、《西藏自治区地方性法规制定程序》、《西藏自治区集体矿山企业和个体采矿管理办法》、《西藏自治区学习、使用和发展藏语文的若干规定（试行）》、《西藏自治区文物保护管理条例》、《关于实行〈中华人民共和国婚姻法〉的变通条例》等。这些地方性法规的制定和实施，为西藏人民各项民主权利的实现和地方社会经济文化事业的发展，提供了重要的法律保障。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The Law of the People's Republic of China Governing Regional National Autonomy stipulates, "People's congresses in the areas of national autonomy have the right to formulate regulations on the exercise of autonomy or specific regulations in accordance with the political, economic and cultural characteristics of the local nationalities." In accordance with the rights bestowed by the Law Governing Regional National Autonomy, the People's Congress of the Tibet Autonomous Region has since 1965 formulated more than 60 local rules and regulations, decrees, decisions and resolutions, involving political, economic, cultural and educational aspects, which conform to the reality of Tibet and maintain the interests of Tibetan people. They include the Rules of Procedures of the People's Congress of the Tibet Autonomous Region, the Procedures on Formulating Local Laws and Regulations for the Tibet Autonomous Region, the Measures for the Management of Mining by Collective Mining Enterprises and Individuals in the Tibet Autonomous Region, the Resolutions on Study, Use and Development of the Tibetan Language in the Tibet Autonomous Region, the Regulations of the Tibet Autonomous Region on the Protection and Management of Cultural Relics, and the Accommodation Rules for the Implementation of the Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China. The formulation and implementation of these local rules and regulations have furnished an important legal guarantee to the realization of democratic rights for the Tibetan people and to the development of local social, economic and cultural undertakings.

　　为了使西藏人民更好地行使管理国家和地方事务的权利。政府十分重视培养西藏民族干部。目前，西藏自治区共有藏族干部3.7万人，各级人大、政府、政协的主要领导职务都由藏族干部担任。藏族干部占干部总数的66.6%，在自治区一级干部中占71.7%，在县级干部中占74.8%。在旧西藏处于社会最底层的藏族妇女，也已走上领导岗位，1986年妇女干部已占全区干部总数的30%以上，现有5人任自治区一级干部，38人任专区一级干部，232人任县级干部。西藏的干部队伍主体是翻身农奴和奴隶，同时也包括各界爱国上层人士。即使对于参加过叛乱的农奴主和他们的代理人，只要放弃反动立场，确有所长也给予适当安排，使他们有机会为国家、为人民出力。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

To enable the Tibetan people to better perform the right to manage state and local affairs, the central government has attached great weight to the training of cadres of Tibetan nationality. Currently, there are 37,000 cadres of Tibetan nationality in the Tibet Autonomous Region. All the main leading posts in the people's congresses, governments and people's political consultative conferences at various levels are filled by Tibetans. Cadres of Tibetan nationality account for 66.6 percent of the total in Tibet, 71.7 percent at the regional level and 74.8 percent at the county level. Tibetan women were in the lowest echelon of society in old Tibet. Today, many of them hold leading posts, accounting for upwards of 30 percent of the cadres in the autonomous region in 1986. At present, five have become cadres at the regional level, 38 at the prefectural level and 232 at the county level. Most Tibetan cadres are emancipated serfs and slaves. There are also some patriots from the upper class. Appropriate arrangements have also been made even for those serf-owners and their agents who participated in the rebellion, giving them the chance to contribute to the state and people if they renounce their reactionary stand and possess real skills.

　　在司法活动中，西藏人民除了享有与中国其他地区的人民同等的法定权利外，还享有民族区域自治法所规定的特殊权利。西藏自治区人民代表大会规定：“各级人民法院与检察院必须保障藏族公民用本民族语言文字进行诉讼的权利。对藏族诉讼参与人，要使用藏语文检察和审理案件，法律文书要使用藏文。”现在，西藏的各级检察院、法院的主要官员均由藏族公民担任。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In judicial activities, in addition to enjoying equal legal rights with the people in other parts of the country, the Tibetan people have also been granted special rights stipulated in the Law of the People's Republic of China Governing Regional National Autonomy. The People's Congress of the Tibet Autonomous Region stipulates, "People's courts and procuratorates at various levels must guarantee the right of Tibetan citizens to use their own national language to enter a lawsuit. In cases involving the Tibetans, Tibetan language should be used in doing procuratorial work and hearing cases, and legal documents should be written in the Tibetan language." At present, the main officials of the procuratorates and courts at all levels in Tibet are Tibetan citizens.

七、经济的发展和人民生活的改善

VII. Economic Development and Improvement of Living Standards

　　旧西藏的封建农奴制度，严重束缚了社会生产力的发展，使西藏经济长期处于极其落后的状态。农业生产基本上是使用“二牛抬杠”的木犁耕地，牦牛踩场脱粒。在少数地方，还保持着“刀耕火种”、“烧荒肥田”的原始耕作方式。1952年，西藏亩产粮食平均只有80公斤（15亩为一公顷），人均占有粮食125公斤。牧业基本上是靠天养畜，自然灾害经常造成牲畜大批死亡，1952年全区牲畜总头数仅为974万头（只）。旧西藏的民族手工业也十分落后，现代工业更是一片空白。旧西藏交通险阻，行路艰辛，贷物运输、邮件传递全靠人背畜驮。横贯西藏的雅鲁藏布江上，只有明朝时残留下来的几条铁索桥，没有一座能通车的桥梁。英国人送给达赖喇嘛的汽车，由于没有公路，只能将汽车拆了用牲畜驮到拉萨。能源状况落后，至1950年解放前夕，仅有一座125千瓦的水电站断续供电。经济的落后和农奴主的残酷剥削，使人民群众处于极端贫穷和悲惨的生活境地。仅就首府拉萨来说，民主改革前城区只有两万多人，城周围住在破烂帐篷里的贫民和乞丐就近千户。监狱不供犯人伙食，戴着手铐、木枷的“囚犯”沿街乞讨。无家可归者冻饿倒毙街头的凄惨情景处处可见。

The feudal serfdom in old Tibet seriously handicapped the development of the social productive forces. The economy in Tibet was in a state of extreme backwardness for a long time. Wooden ploughs were the basic tools for agricultural production and yaks were employed for threshing. Slash and burn cultivation and the burning of grass to fertilize land were still customs retained in a few localities. In 1952, each mu of land (15 mu equal to 1 hectare) could only produce 80 kg of grain on the average and the per-capita share of grain came to 125 kg. Livestock breeding hinged on climatic conditions and frequent natural calamities often caused the deaths of large numbers of animals. In 1952, the region had only 9.74 million head of livestock. The handicrafts industry was also extremely backward and modern industry was nonexistent in old Tibet. Dangerous and difficult roads made it hard to travel in the region. The transport of goods and the delivery of mail had to depend on human and animal power. There were no bridges on the Yarlung Zangbo River that dissects Tibet, except for a few chain constructions left over from the Ming Dynasty. Since there were no highways in Tibet, the car given to the Dalai Lama by the British had to be dismantled and carried to Lhasa by draught animals. Tibet was also backward in regard to sources of energy. In 1950, on the eve of Tibet's peaceful liberation, there was only one 125-kw hydropower station in the region, which supplied electricity only intermittently. The backward economy and the cruel exploitation by the serf-owners kept the people in dire poverty and misery. As far as Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, was concerned, there were only 20,000 residents in the city proper before the Democratic Reform in 1959, and close to 1,000 tattered tents thrown together for the poor and beggars could be seen on the outskirts of the city. Prison authorities offered no food to the convicts, and "prisoners" in handcuffs and wooden cangues begged in the streets. And the pathetic remains of those homeless people who died of frost and hunger could be spotted anywhere in the city.

　　民主改革大大激发了广大农牧民的生产积极性。四十年来，特别是改革开放十多年来，西藏人民在中央政府和全国人民的支持下，发展生产，治穷致富，使整个社会发生了翻天覆地的变化。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The Democratic Reform has greatly fired the enthusiasm of farmers and herdsmen for production. In the past four decades, particularly since the reform and opening up of the last ten years and more, earth-shaking changes have taken place in Tibet. With the support of the central government and people throughout the country, the Tibetan people have developed production, alleviated poverty and built up family fortunes.

　　发展农牧业在西藏的经济生活中处于最重要的地位。民主改革初期，中央和西藏地方人民政府即制定了符合当地实际的一系列发展农牧业的方针和政策，并从财力、物力等方面给予大力扶持，使农牧业生产水平明显提高。1966年，粮食总产量就由1959年的1.8亿公斤增加到3.15亿公斤，平均每年增长8.3%；牧畜从1959年的955.6万头（只）发展到1817.5万头（只），增长90.2%，人民生活得到了初步改善。

The development of agriculture and animal husbandry has been given top priority in the Tibetan economy. During the early stage of the Democratic Reform, the central government and the Tibetan local government formulated a series of policies and principles for the development of agriculture and animal husbandry which were compatible with the local conditions. Financial and material support was also provided. As a result, Tibet's production levels of agriculture and animal husbandry increased greatly. Total grain output rose from 180 million kg in 1959 to 315 million kg in 1966, registering an average growth rate of 8.3 percent a year. Cattle soared from 9.556 million head in 1959 to 18.175 million head, a rise of 90.2 percent. The living standards of the people took the first step towards improvement.

　　1980年开始，政府对农牧民实行免征免购，不收任何农牧业税。1984年，除对农牧业继续提供免息贷款外，对1980年以前用于兴修水利、购买农牧业机械等项集体贷款免于归还。农牧区实行了以家庭经营为主的各种形式的生产责任制，发展家庭副业，恢复集市贸易，并开展了大规模的农田、草场基本建设。西藏解放前没有农业机械和化肥，现在拖拉机已成为农户自买的农具。科学种田、科学养畜受到普遍重视和欢迎。生产工具的进步和科学技术的应用使生产得到全面的发展。1991年，西藏农业总产值达到20.46亿元，比1952年增长3.4倍，粮食产量达到5.8亿公斤，平均亩产达到224公斤，分别比1952年增长2.7倍和1.8倍。尽管西藏人口1991年比1952年增长一倍多，但1991年人均占有粮食达到290.5公斤，仍比1952年提高1.2倍。畜产品产量大幅度增长，1991年肉类总产量达到9.1万吨，奶类总产量17.7万吨。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Since 1980, the government has imposed no levies on farmers and herdsmen, with both agricultural and livestock taxes exempted. In 1984, in addition to continuing the practice of interest exemption for agricultural and livestock loans, the government annulled repayment of pre-1980 collective loans used for the building of water conservancy projects and purchasing machinery for agriculture and animal husbandry. Agricultural and pastoral areas have introduced various forms of contracted production responsibility systems on a household basis, developed household sideline occupations, restored open markets and conducted large-scale capital construction of farmland and grassland. Before the liberation of Tibet, there was no farm machinery or chemical fertilizer in Tibet. Nowadays, farming households own tractors. Scientific farming and breeding of cattle has become highly valued and welcomed. Introduction of modern tools for production and the application of science and technology have boosted overall production. In 1991, the total output value of agriculture reached 2.046 billion yuan in Tibet, 4.4 times higher than in 1952. Grain output came to 580 million kg and the average per-mu yield was 224 kg, showing rises of 3.7 times and 2.8 times respectively over 1952. Although the 1991 population of Tibet was almost double that in 1952, the per-capita share of grain in 1991 came to 290.5 kg, or an increase of 2.2 times that of 1952. The output of animal by-products rose by a substantial margin. In 1991, the total meat output stood at 91,000 tons and the total output of milk reached 177,000 tons.

　　西藏现代工业是从民主改革后才起步的。1965年，西藏已建立了建筑、电力、汽车修理、森工、制革、硼砂、煤炭等工业企业80个，职工近万人，当年的工业总产值达2883万元。政府重视民族手工业的发展，1965年全区民族手工业发展到33个行业，年总产值由民主改革前的124万元增加到890万元，增长6.2倍。西藏缺油少煤，过去能源供应贫乏。为改变这种状况，1956年在拉萨修建了电站，这是西藏第一个公用电力企业。西藏地热资源丰富，由国家投资在羊八井建成了中国最大兆瓦级地热电站。到1991年，西藏电力装机容量已达14万千瓦，年发电量4亿千瓦小时。经过四十年的建设，西藏目前拥有电力、采矿、建材、森工、毛纺、印刷、食品等十多项现代工业，国营企业职工5.1万人。1991年，工业总产值为4.03亿元，比1959年增长4.3倍；民族手工业产值达到4600万元。

Modern industry started after the Democratic Reform of Tibet. In 1965, 80 industrial enterprises were established in Tibet. Employing close to 10,000 workers, they covered the building, power, motor vehicle repair, lumber, tanning, borax and coal industries. The total industrial output value reached 28.83 million yuan that year. The government has paid close attention to the development of the national handicrafts. In 1965, it had widened to encompass 33 trades and its total annual output value rose from 1.24 million yuan before the Democratic Reform to 8.9 million yuan, showing a 7.2-fold rise. Tibet was short of petroleum and coal, and energy supply was inadequate in the past. To change the situation, a power station was built in Lhasa in 1956. It was the first public power enterprise in Tibet. Tibet is rich in geothermal resources and the state invested in building a geothermal power station in Yangbajain with the biggest generating capacity in China. In 1991, the installed power generating capacity of Tibet reached 140,000 kw and the annual output of generated electricity came to 400 million kwh. After 40 years of construction, Tibet boasts a dozen or so modern industries such as power, mining, building materials, lumber, wool textile, printing and food. Employees of state-owned enterprises total 51,000. In 1991, the total industrial output value came to 403 million yuan, a rise of 5.3 times that of 1959. The output value of the handicrafts stood at 46 million yuan.

　　过去西藏没有一条正规公路。西藏和平解放后的第一项大规模建设，就是在平均海拔为3000米的崇山峻岭中修建四川和青海通往拉萨的公路。川藏公路全线长2413公里，青藏公路全线长2122公里。此后，又相继建成新藏、滇藏、中尼等干线公路。目前，全西藏有干线公路15条，支线公路315条，建成公路总长21842公里。除在深山之中的墨脱县外，所有的县77%的乡都通了公路。一个以拉萨为中心，以青藏、川藏、滇藏、中尼公路为骨架的公路网络已经形成。为了解决西藏的燃料供应困难，国家拨款修建了一条从青海省格尔木至西藏拉萨的成品油输油管道，全长1080公里，对保证西藏能源供应、支援经济建设起到重要作用。为了更好的适应西藏对外开放的需要，在1956年开辟拉萨至北京航线后，又相继开通了拉萨至成都、西安、兰州、上海、广州等国内航线和拉萨至尼泊尔加德满都的国际航线。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Tibet had no regular highways in the past. After the peaceful liberation of Tibet, the first large-scale construction project was to build highways from Sichuan and Qinghai to Lhasa on the high mountain ridges with an average elevation of 3,000 meters. The Sichuan-Tibet Highway is 2,413 km long and the Qinghai-Tibet Highway 2,122 km long. Since then, the Xinjiang-Tibet, Yunnan-Tibet and China-Nepal highways have been built one after another. Currently, there are 15 arterial highways and 315 feeder roads, with a total length of 21,842 km, throughout Tibet. Except for Medog County which is located deep in the mountains, highways provide access to all the counties and 77 percent of the townships in Tibet. A highway network, with Lhasa at the center, consisting mainly of the Qinghai-Tibet, Sichuan-Tibet, Yunnan-Tibet and China-Nepal highways, has taken shape. In order to solve Tibet's fuel supply problem, the state allocated funds to build a refined oil transmission pipeline from Golmud in Qinghai Province to Lhasa. This 1,080-km-long pipeline has played an important role in guaranteeing energy supplies for Tibet in its economic construction. To meet Tibet's need to open to the outside world, since the start of an air route from Lhasa to Beijing in 1956, domestic airlines have offered services from Lhasa to Chengdu, Xian, Lanzhou, Shanghai and Guangzhou. International air links have been inaugurated between Lhasa and Kathmandu, Nepal.

　　旧西藏现代科技事业完全是空白。民主改革后，先后建立了农业、畜牧业、交通、电力、建筑、地质、水利、气象、卫生、藏医药、教育等专门科研机构，培养了一批藏族科技人员。1985年成立了西藏自治区社会科学院。现在，西藏有专门科研机构17个，各类科技专业人员2.69万人。四十年来，西藏有347项科技成果获自治区级奖，其中“西藏太阳能资源的综合开发利用”等21项科研成果获国家级奖。

Modern science and technology did not exist in old Tibet. The period since the Democratic Reform has seen the establishment of agricultural, animal husbandry, communications, power, construction, geological, water conservancy, meteorological, public health, pharmaceutical and educational research institutions in Tibet. They have trained Tibetan scientific and technical personnel. The Academy of Social Sciences of the Tibet Autonomous Region was set up in 1985. Currently, Tibet has 17 special scientific research institutions with 26,900 technical personnel. Over the past 40 years, 347 scientific and technological achievements have been awarded prizes at the autonomous regional level. Of these, 21 scientific research achievements such as "the comprehensive development and utilization of solar energy resources in Tibet" have been honored by state prizes.

　　西藏高原雪峰和名寺古迹吸引着世界众多的探险客和旅游者。在对外开放中，西藏的旅游业开始逐步发展起来。现在，西藏已有旅行社11家，旅游涉外饭店、宾馆19家，床位3600张，开辟景区60多个。从1980年至1991年，共接待海外旅游者15.09万次。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The snowy peaks, famous monasteries and relics of historical interest on the Tibetan Plateau have attracted many adventurers and tourists from other countries. In opening up, Tibet's tourism industry has gradually flourished. At present, Tibet has 11 travel agencies and 19 tourist hotels and guesthouses with 3,600 beds for foreign guests. The autonomous region has opened over 60 scenic spots to the public. Between 1980 and 1991, Tibet received 150,900 overseas tourists.

　　经过四十多年的努力，西藏人民的生活水平普遍有了显著提高，绝大部分农牧民的温饱问题已基本解决，一部分农牧民已经富裕起来，1991年全区农牧民人均纯收入为455元，扣除物价上涨因素，比1979年的159元增长1.6倍。喜马拉雅山下的亚东县珠居村，1986年全村75户年收入36.16万元，全村有74户盖了新房。城镇居民家庭年人均收入为2120元，比1981年增长2.3倍。1991年末，城镇储蓄存款余额为49240万元，比1959年增长500多倍。农牧民家庭已拥有数量可观的生产资料，平均每户拥有生产性固定资产价值6021元，牲畜75头（只）；每百户拥有汽车9台，大小拖拉机6台，机动脱粒机3台，马车12台。农牧民人均实物消费量比解放前有大幅度的增长。1991年，人均消费粮食183.6公斤，食用油3.6公斤，肉类14.7公斤，奶类50公斤。在保持传统饮食习惯的同时，饮食结构向多样化发展，增加了蔬菜、禽蛋、酒类、糖果、糕点等的消费。人民住房有了很大改善。据旧西藏地方政府统计，1950年西藏有人口100万，其中没有自己住房的就有90余万人。现在，除了部分牧区的游牧民之外，所有的家庭都有固定住房。1991年城镇居民人均住房面积达到13.7平方米。西藏日喀则地区江孜县有5.67万人口，80%以上的群众住进了新房，人均住房面积达40平方米。藏族人民传统的生活方式注入了现代化的内容。据抽样调查统计，城镇每百户居民有自行车212辆，彩色电视机88台，收录机84台，洗衣机42台，电冰箱24台，照像机26架。各项文化设施的建设，使西藏人民的精神、文化生活也越来越丰富充实。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Due to efforts made in the past 40-odd years the living standards of the Tibetan people have improved markedly. Most farmers and herdsmen have adequate food and clothing and some have attained relative affluence. In 1991, the average net income of farmers and herdsmen in the region was 455 yuan. Allowing for price increases, the figure was 2.6 times higher than the 159 yuan of 1979. In the Zholgyur Village, Yadong County at the foot of the Himalayas, the annual income of the 75 households was 361,600 yuan in 1986 and 74 households have built new dwellings. The per-capita income of residents in cities and towns is 2,120 yuan a year, 3.3 times higher than in 1981. By the end of 1991, savings deposits of city and township residents totalled 492.4 million yuan, over 500 times more than in 1959. Farmers and herdsmen have obtained considerable amount of means of production. Each household owns 6,021 yuan worth of fixed assets for production purposes and 75 head of cattle. For every 100 households, there are nine motor vehicles, six tractors, three power-driven threshers, and 12 horse-drawn carts. The average per-capita material consumption of farmers and herdsmen has increased enormously compared with the period before the liberation of Tibet. In 1991, the per-capita consumption of grain was 183.6 kg. Other figures were 3.6 kg for edible oil, 14.7 kg for meat and 50 kg for milk. While retaining their traditional diet, Tibetans have expanded it to also include more vegetables, eggs, wine, sweets and pastries. The living conditions of the people have improved markedly. According to statistics produced by the local government of old Tibet, of a population of 1 million in Tibet in 1950, some 900,000 lacked real housing. Currently, except for the pastoral areas, all households have fixed housing. In 1991, the per-capita floor space of city and township residents reached 13.7 square meters. In Gyangze County of Xigaze Prefecture, which has a population of 56,700, over 80 percent have moved into new dwellings, with a per-capita floor space of 40 square meters. The traditional way of life of the Tibetan people has been somewhat modernized. A sample survey shows that for every 100 urban households, there are 212 bicycles, 88 color televisions, 84 radio cassette recorders, 42 washing machines, 24 refrigerators and 26 cameras. The construction of various cultural facilities has increasingly enriched the ethical outlook and cultural life of Tibetan people.

　　由于西藏地区特别困难的自然条件和历史上特别落后的社会发展状况，今天西藏的经济发展水平和人民生活水平仍低于中国全国的平均水平。1989年西藏自治区政府制定了《西藏经济社会发展战略设想》，实行对内对外开放，开拓区内、国内、国外市场，开发优势资源，发展重点区域和重点产业，力争尽快缩短西藏地区与中国其他地区的经济发展差距，为藏族和其他民族的共同繁荣打好基础。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Due to Tibet's extremely harsh natural conditions and its extremely backward social development in history, the level of economic development and the living standards of the people are still lower than the nation's average. In 1989, the government of Tibet Autonomous Region formulated the Strategic Ideas for the Economic and Social Development of Tibet. It has implemented the policy of opening up to the rest part of China and the outside world as well; exploring the regional, domestic and foreign markets; developing advantageous resources and stepping up development of key areas and key industries. The goal is to narrow as soon as possible the gap in economic development between Tibet and other areas of the nation in order to lay a solid foundation for the common prosperity of Tibetan and other ethnic groups.

八、宗教信仰自由

VIII. Freedom of Religious Belief

　　西藏大多数人信奉藏传佛教。全区信奉伊斯兰教的只有约2000人，信奉天主教的近600人。

The majority of Tibetans believe in Tibetan Buddhism. There are also about 2,000 Muslims and 600 Catholics in the autonomous region.

　　尊重和保护宗教信仰自由，是中国政府的基本政策。西藏和平解放后，西藏各级机构认真贯彻宗教信仰自由政策，受到广大僧俗群众的赞扬。现在，西藏人民在国家宪法和法律的保护下，享有开展正常宗教活动的充分自由。信教者家中几乎都设有小经堂或佛龛。每年到拉萨朝佛敬香的信教群众均达百万人次以上。在西藏处处可以看到善男信女悬挂的经幡，堆积的嘛尼堆。在大昭寺等一些著名的寺院内外，挤满了磕长头、转经、朝佛的信教群众。

Respect for and protection of freedom of religious belief is a basic policy of the Chinese government. After the peaceful liberation of Tibet, organizations at all levels in Tibet earnestly carried out the policy, gaining the appreciation of both monks and lay people. Protected by the Constitution of the People's Republic of China and state laws, the Tibetan people now enjoy full freedom to participate in normal religious activities. Almost every religious family has a small sutra recitation hall or a niche for a Buddhist statue. More than 1 million worshipers make the pilgrimage to Lhasa each year. Sutra streamers and Mani stone mounds put up by devout believers can be seen everywhere in Tibet. Inside and outside famous monasteries such as the Jokhang are crowds of worshipers either prostrating in prayer, turning their prayer wheels or bowing to Buddhist statues.

　　在“文化大革命”期间，西藏同全国其他地区一样，宗教信仰自由政策遭到了严重破坏，宗教活动场所及设施受到了严重损失。“文化大革命”结束以后，西藏重新全面地落实宗教信仰自由政策。1980年以来，西藏平反了冤假错案，相继恢复和新成立了宗教工作机构，在保障公民的宗教信仰自由权利方面做了大量工作。十多年来中国政府向西藏地方拨专款两亿多元用于落实宗教政策，维修了建于公元七世纪的大昭寺，公元八世纪吐蕃王兴建的桑耶寺，藏传佛教格鲁派四大名寺哲蚌寺、色拉寺、甘丹寺和扎什伦布寺。为了维修布达拉宫，国家一次就拨款4000多万元。1984年，中央资助专款670万元，黄金111公斤，白银2000公斤及大量珠宝，在十世班禅大师主持下，修复了五至九世班禅灵塔、祀殿。至今，西藏得到修复和开放的宗教活动场所已达到1400多处，满足了信教群众正常宗教生活的需要，政府还多方设法寻回在“文化大革命”中散失的佛像、法器等宗教用品，分发给各寺庙，受到广大僧人和群众的欢迎。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

During the period of the "cultural revolution" (1966-76), however, in Tibet as in other parts of China, the policy on freedom of religious belief was disrupted, and sites and facilities for religious activities were seriously damaged. After the "cultural revolution" ended, the policy on freedom of religious belief began to be implemented again in Tibet in an all-round way. Since 1980, unjust, false and wrong cases have been redressed in Tibet and religious institutions have been reinstated or established, and a great deal of work has been done to ensure freedom of religious belief for all citizens. Over the past decade and more, the Chinese government has appropriated more than 200 million yuan in special funds to implement the religious policy in Tibet. The funds were used to renovate the Jokhang Monastery built in the 7th century, the Samye Monastery built by the king of the Tubo Kingdom in the 8th century, and the four famous monasteries of the Gelug Sect of Tibetan Buddhism -- Zhaibung, Sera, Gandan and Tashilhunpo. For the renovation of the Potala Palace alone, the central government allotted a lump sum of more than 40 million yuan. In 1984, the central government provided 6.7 million yuan in special funds, 111 kg of gold, 2,000 kg of silver and large quantities of jewelry for the renovation, under the direction of the late 10th Bainqen Lama, of the holy stupas and the memorial halls for the 5th to the 9th Bainqen Lamas. To date, more than 1,400 religious centers have been renovated and opened to the public, meeting the needs of the religious people for their normal religious life. The government has also exerted every effort to locate those Buddhist statues, instruments used in Buddhist services and other religious articles that got lost during the "cultural revolution" and distributed them to the various monasteries and temples, to the welcome of monks and lay people.

　　近年来，西藏各宗教团体自主地组织各种宗教活动。中国佛教协会西藏自治区分会于1983年创办了西藏佛学院，并在各教派的一些寺庙中开办了学经班，现有学僧近3000名。另外每年还推荐一定数量的活佛、学僧到北京，进入中国藏语系高级佛学院进修深造。1984年自治区人民政府将档案馆保存的《甘珠尔》藏文大藏经拉萨版赠送给自治区佛协，并资助50万元开办了拉萨印经院，几年来已印出1000多部《甘珠尔》藏文大藏经，供给区内外各藏语系佛教寺庙。1990年，自治区佛协又得到政府资助50万元，在拉萨木加寺开始刻制十三世达赖喇嘛想要刻制而未能付诸实施的《甘珠尔》藏文大藏经拉萨版。1985年佛协创办了《西藏佛教》刊物。现在全区有3.4万多名僧尼。当选为各级人大代表、政协委员、佛协理事以及在政府中任职的宗教界人士共有615人，他们参政、议政，同其他公民一样共同致力于西藏的各项建设事业。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

In recent years, various religious organizations have organized religious activities on their own. The Tibet branch of the Buddhist Association of China established the Tibet College of Buddhism in 1983 and opened sutra studying classes in some monasteries and temples of various religious sects. There are a total of 3,000 monk students. Every year, a number of Living Buddhas and lamas are sent to the China Tibetan Language High Institute of Buddhism in Beijing for advanced studies. In 1984, the autonomous region's people's government presented the Lhasa edition of the Gangyur of Tripitaka in Tibetan, which used to be kept in local archives, to the Tibet Buddhist Association. It offered 500,000 yuan to the latter for the establishment of the Lhasa Sutra Printing House which, in recent years, has printed more than 1,000 volumes of the Gangyur of Tripitaka in Tibetan for Tibetan Buddhist monasteries and temples located both inside and outside the autonomous region. In 1990, with another 500,000 yuan proffered by the government, the Tibet Buddhist Association started the carving of printing blocks for the Lhasa edition of the Dangyur of Tripitaka in Tibetan in Lhasa's Muru Monastery. The 13th Dalai Lama had intended to commission the work, but the plan never materialized. The journal Tibetan Buddhism was launched by the Tibet Buddhist Association in 1985. Today, the region has more than 34,000 lamas and nuns. A total of 615 people from religious circles have become deputies to the people's congresses and members of the people's political consultative conferences at various levels, as well as directors of the Buddhist associations and government officials. They participate in the management and discussion of government affairs and devote themselves to Tibet's construction undertakings together with other local citizens.

　　政府尊重和保护各教派的传统宗教活动和习俗。根据藏传佛教的仪轨和历史惯例，活佛去世后按传统的办法转世传承。1992年6月25日，中央政府批准了第十六世噶玛巴活佛的转世灵童。对一年一度的拉萨传召大法会，传统的马年转大雪山、羊年转纳木神湖和热振寺坝子等活动，政府有关部门都前往斋僧布施。群众婚丧嫁娶仪式中与宗教有关的习俗都受到完全尊重。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The government respects and protects traditional religious activities and the rites of the various sects. According to the rituals of Tibetan Buddhism and historical traditions, after a Living Buddha passes away his position should be inherited by his incarnation through traditional methods. On June 25, 1992, the central government confirmed the incarnate soul boy of the 16th Living Buddha Garmaba. Government department officials attend such religious activities as the annual Grand Summons Ceremony in Lhasa, the pilgrimage to Snow Mountain in the Year of the Horse, the pilgrimage to the Holy Lake of Nam Co in the Year of the Sheep and the Walking-Around-Religious-Rock Festival at the Razheng Monastery, and offer alms each time. Wedding and funeral customs with religious links also receive full regard.

　　在西藏，由于认真贯彻执行了宗教信仰自由政策，各宗教、教派和寺庙之间，信教与不信教群众之间都相互尊重，和睦相处。同时，国家宪法也明确规定，任何人不得利用宗教进行破坏社会秩序、损害公民身体健康、妨碍国家教育制度的活动。对于利用宗教进行违法犯罪活动者，一律依法处理。近年来西藏有一些僧尼被依法治罪，都是因为触犯了刑律，如参加骚乱，危害社会治安，扰乱社会秩序，搞打、砸、抢、烧、杀等犯罪活动，没有一个是因宗教信仰而被拘捕判罪的。

Thanks to the earnest implementation of the policy on freedom of religious belief, different religions, sects, monasteries, and both religious and secular people in Tibet respect one another and live in harmony. China's Constitution also clearly stipulates that no one may make use of religion to engage in activities that disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens and hamper the country's educational system. Those who carry out law-breaking and conduct criminal activities under the guise of religion will be prosecuted according to law. In recent years, some monks and nuns in Tibet received legal retribution because they infringed on the law. They were involved in riots that endangered social security and disrupted public order, engaged in beating, smashing, looting, burning and killing and carried out other criminal activities. None was arrested and declared guilty because of religious belief.

　　西藏佛教组织和宗教界人士积极开展同外国宗教团体和宗教界人士之间的友好往来活动。改革开放以来，中国佛教协会西藏分会和一些寺庙，组织了宗教人士出国进行友好访问、参观、考察和学术交流；热情地接待了几十个国家前来西藏朝佛、参观、考察的团体和个人，共计一万多人次。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Buddhist organizations and religious circles in Tibet have actively carried out friendly exchanges with their counterparts abroad. Since China introduced reform and opening up, the Tibet branch of the Buddhist Association of China and some monasteries and temples have organized religious groups to go on friendly tours, visits, inspections and academic exchanges abroad. They have also hosted more than 10,000 people from several dozen countries who came, either in groups or individually, on pilgrimage, or for sightseeing or inspection tours.

　　西藏和平解放以来，很多著名的宗教界人士同中国共产党和政府合作共事，参政议政，为国家和西藏的建设事业发挥积极的作用，深受群众的敬仰和政府的尊重。与达赖喇嘛并为藏传佛教领袖的十世班禅额尔德尼·确吉坚赞几十年如一日，一直坚持爱国主义立场，在和平解放西藏、反对分裂等斗争中，为维护祖国统一，增强民族团结，做出了重大贡献。建国以来，他历任全国人民代表大会常务委员会副委员长、中国佛教协会名誉会长等职，于1989年元月圆寂。政府决定在日喀则扎什伦布寺修建十世班禅额尔德尼·确吉坚赞遗体灵塔和祀殿，按照藏传佛教的仪轨，举行宗教悼念活动，办理遗体保护以及转世灵童的寻访、认定等事宜。目前灵塔和祀殿主体工程已基本完成，寻访十世班禅转世灵童的工作正在扎什伦布寺恰扎·强巴赤列活佛的主持下顺利进行。

Since the peaceful liberation of Tibet in 1951, many noted religious figures have worked in co-operation with the Chinese Communist Party and the government, and participated in the management and discussion of government affairs. They have played an active part in the construction of the country and Tibet, earning the admiration of the people and winning the respect of the government. For several decades, the late 10th Bainqen Erdeni Qoigyi Gyaincan, co-leader of Tibetan Buddhism with the Dalai Lama, constantly adhered to a patriotic stand and made great contributions to the peaceful liberation of Tibet, to the struggle against separatism, to the safeguarding of the unification of the motherland and to the strengthening of the unity of various ethnic groups. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, he served as a vice-chairman of the NPC Standing Committee and the honorary president of the Buddhist Association of China. He passed away in January 1989. The government decided to build a holy stupa and memorial hall for the remains of the 10th Bainqen Erdeni Qoigyi Gyaincan in the Tashilhunpo Monastery in Xigaze, and hold memorial ceremonies, preserve his body and look for and choose the reincarnated soul boy to succeed him according to Tibetan Buddhist tradition. Currently, structures of the holy stupa and the memorial hall are basically completed, and the search for the child is proceeding smoothly under the charge of Living Buddha Qazha Qamba Chilai of the Tashilhunpo Monastery.

九、教育和文化的发展

IX. Development of Education and Culture

　　旧西藏教育十分落后，没有一所近代意义上的学校。西藏和平解放前，仅有2000余名僧侣和贵族子弟在旧式官办学校和私塾学习。广大农奴和奴隶没有接受教育的权利。

Education in old Tibet was very backward. There were no schools in the modern sense. Before Tibet's peaceful liberation, only some 2,000 monks and children of the nobility studied in government and private schools. The masses of serfs and slaves had no right to receive education.

　　根据“十七条协议”中有关逐步发展西藏民族的语言、文字和学校教育的规定，1952年拉萨小学建立，1956年拉萨中学建立，西藏走上了现代教育的轨道。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Under the stipulation of the 17-Article Agreement concerning the gradual development of the spoken and written Tibetan language and school education, the Lhasa Primary School was founded in 1952 and the Lhasa Middle School established in 1956. This enabled Tibet to embark on the road to modern education.

　　为发展西藏教育事业，国家四十年来累计投资11亿多元，并实施了一系列优惠政策。比如实行免费教育，藏族学生自小学直至大学毕业的学习费用全部由政府支付。从1985年起，又对部分藏族中小学学生实行包吃、包穿、包住政策，在广大农牧区学校推行寄宿制。各级各类学校招生实行“以当地民族为主”的原则，在大中专学校招生中，优先录取藏族等当地民族考生。进一步兴办藏语言文字、藏医学、藏族艺术、藏族历史等藏族文化系科（专业）、学校。

To develop education in Tibet, the government has invested more than 1.1 billion yuan and introduced a series of special policies over the past 40 years. Education is free. All the study costs of Tibetan students, from primary school to university, are covered by the government. Since 1985, free food, clothing and accommodation have been provided for some Tibetan primary and middle school students, and boarding schools have been introduced in the vast rural and pastoral areas. The principle of "giving priority to local nationalities" has been carried out in recruiting students for various kinds of schools at different levels. Priority is given to candidates of Tibetan and other local nationalities in the recruitment of university, college and secondary vocational school students. Efforts are being made to establish more departments and schools of Tibetan culture covering Tibetan language, medicine, art and history.

　　四十多年来，西藏已经基本建立起包括幼儿教育、小学教育、中学教育、中等专业技术教育、高等教育以及成人教育、电视教育等在内的具有西藏地方特色和民族特点的教育体系。广大城镇居民、农牧民享受到受教育的权利。据统计，到1991年，西藏已有西藏大学、民族学院、农牧学院和藏医学院4所现代大学，师范、农牧、卫生、藏医、财经、体育、艺术、邮电等中等专业技术学校15所，中学63所，小学2474所。在校生总人数达19.6万人，绝大多数是藏族学生；教职工达1.6万人，藏族教师占三分之二。大、中、小学建筑面积近150万平方米，电化教学成为重要的教学手段之一。四十多年来，西藏高等学校毕业生达1.8万人，中小学毕业生51万人，其中中专、高中、技工学校毕业生4万多人，培训轮训干部1.5万余人，另有近7000人次获成人自学中专、大专考试合格证书，为各项建设事业培养出大批人才。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Over the past four decades and more, Tibet has basically established an educational system with both special local flavor and national characteristics which includes pre-school, primary and middle school, secondary vocational and technical school education, plus higher education, and adult and television education. Urban residents, farmers and herdsmen now enjoy the right to receive education. According to statistics, by 1991, Tibet had established four modern universities (Tibet University, the Institute for Nationalities, the Agriculture and Animal Husbandry College and the Tibetan Medical College); 15 secondary vocational and technical schools involved in teacher training, agriculture and animal husbandry, public health, Tibetan medicine, finances, sports, art, and post and telecommunications; 63 middle schools and 2,474 primary schools. The total enrollment hit 196,000, with most being Tibetan students. Of the 16,000 faculty members, two-thirds were Tibetan teachers. The buildings of primary and secondary schools and institutes of higher learning covered nearly 1.5 million square meters, and audio-visual teaching had become an important means of instruction. In the last four decades and more in Tibet, 18,000 students graduated from universities and colleges; 510,000 from primary and secondary schools, including more than 40,000 from secondary vocational schools, senior middle schools and secondary technical schools; more than 15,000 cadres were trained in rotation; and nearly 7,000 people received certificates from secondary vocational and college-level self-study programs. A large number of professionals for all undertakings have thus been trained.

　　西藏教育事业的发展使人民群众文化素质普遍提高，为西藏人民更好地行使民族区域自治权利，实现民族全面发展创造了条件。但是，由于过去西藏教育的基础十分薄弱，西藏地区的人口居住过于分散，西藏人口中的文盲、半文盲虽已从过去的大多数人减为少数人，却仍占不小的比例。进一步发展西藏教育，仍是一个艰巨而紧迫的任务。

The development of education in Tibet has enhanced the cultural level of citizens, creating conditions for the Tibetan people to better exercise their right of regional autonomy as an ethnic minority and attain overall development. However, since the foundations of education in old Tibet were very weak and the population sparsely scattered, illiterates and semi-illiterates still make up a considerable proportion in Tibet's population, although they are now in the minority rather than in the majority, as they were in the past. Further development of education remains a strenuous and pressing task in Tibet.

　　西藏有着丰富的民族传统文化，包括语言文字、文学、艺术、哲学、宗教、医学、天文历算等。中国政府历来重视维护和发展西藏的优秀民族传统文化，采取了一系列尊重、保护和繁荣民族传统文化的政策和措施，使西藏文化得到继承和发展。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Tibet has a rich traditional culture which covers language, literature, art, philosophy, religion, medicine and the celestial almanac. The Chinese government has always attached importance to protecting and developing the excellent traditional culture of the Tibetan ethnic group. It has adopted a series of policies and measures to honor, protect and ensure the flourishing of Tibet's traditional culture, enabling the legacy of Tibetan culture to be inherited and developed.

　　藏语言文字是西藏全区通用的语言文字。1987年7月，自治区人民代表大会通过了《西藏自治区学习、使用和发展藏语文的若干规定（试行）》，明确规定在西藏自治区藏汉语文并重，以藏语文为主的原则。现在在西藏自治区，人大通过的决议、法规、法令，人民政府下达的正式文件、发布的布告，都用藏汉两种文字。报纸、广播、电视都用藏汉两种语言文字。自治区编辑出版的图书中，藏文图书占70%。自治区招工、招干、招生对不同语言文字使用者平等对待，优先照顾藏语文使用者。群众参加的各种大型会议都使用藏语文。所有单位、街道、路标和公共设施一律使用藏汉两种文字的标记。各级各类学校的藏语文课是学生的主课。

The Tibetan language is the common language for the whole autonomous region. In July 1987, the autonomous regional People's Congress adopted the Regulations on Study, Use and Development of the Tibetan Language in the Tibet Autonomous Region (for trial implementation), which clearly stipulates that both Tibetan and Chinese languages should be used in the Tibet Autonomous Region while first place is given to the Tibetan language. Today, all the resolutions, regulations and rules, the decrees adopted by the People's Congress of the Tibet Autonomous Region and all the formal documents and notices issued by the autonomous regional people's government are in both Tibetan and Chinese. Newspapers, radio and television stations also use both languages. Of the books edited and published in the autonomous region, those in the Tibetan language make up 70 percent. Speakers of different languages are treated equally in the recruitment of workers, cadres and students, with priority always given to Tibetan speakers. Tibetan is used in large meetings attended by the masses. All work units, streets, roads and public facilities are marked in both Tibetan and Chinese script. The Tibetan language is the main subject of all schools at different levels.

　　藏族人民的传统风俗习惯受到广泛尊重。在西藏的城镇和农牧区，大多数藏族群众都依然保持着藏族服饰、饮食、住房的传统风格。每年，藏族群众以传统方式欢度藏历新年、雪顿节、酥油灯节、沐浴节、望果节、达玛节等藏族的传统节日。国家对民族必需品的生产采取优惠政策。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The Tibetan people's traditional customs and practices have received wide respect. In the cities, towns and agricultural and pastoral areas in Tibet, most Tibetans still retain their traditional clothing, diet and housing. Each year, the Tibetan people celebrate the Tibetan New Year, the Sour Milk Drinking Festival, the Butter Lamp Festival, the Bathing Festival, the Ongkor (Bumper Harvest) Festival and the Damar Festival in their time-honored ways. The government has introduced preferential policies to encourage the production of necessities for minority nationalities.

　　西藏地区的文物受到了全面的保护。布达拉宫、大昭寺等一批寺庙列为全国或自治区重点文物保护单位。从七十年代中期起，展开了系统的高原考古工作，先后发掘了石器时代的文化遗址数十处。各种出土文物由西藏文物管理部门妥善保管，为研究西藏原始文化和藏族传统文化提供了宝贵资料。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Cultural relics in Tibet are put under full protection. The Potala Palace, the Jokhang Monastery and some other monasteries and temples have become national or regional key cultural preservation centers. Since the mid-1970s, systematic plateau archeological studies have been carried out and several dozen cultural sites of the Stone Age excavated. All the unearthed cultural relics are carefully kept by the regional cultural relics management department, and these discoveries provide valuable materials for the study of primitive and traditional Tibetan culture.

　　对西藏民族传统文化遗产进行全面系统的普查、收集、整理、出版和研究。西藏藏文古籍出版社已收集到藏文古籍珍本200余部，整理出版了一批珍稀藏文古籍。西藏人民出版社重点整理出版了一批古典名著和历史档案丛书。截止1990年底，公开发行的藏文古籍已有200多种，100多万册。数百年来只有手抄本、木刻本，被禁锢、埋没的藏文典籍，第一次有了各种装帧精美的印刷版本。

The traditional cultural heritage of Tibetans has been systematically investigated, collected, collated, published and studied. The Tibetan Ancient Books Publishing House has collected more than 200 rare ancient books in Tibetan and collated and published a number of them. The Tibet People's Publishing House has pooled efforts to collate and publish a number of classics and booklets of historical archives. By the end of 1990, more than 1 million copies of 200 ancient Tibetan books had been distributed. Tibetan classics, which only existed in hand-written and engraved forms and were neglected for several hundred years, now, for the first time, have been printed in copies with exquisite binding.

　　西藏的民间文学、戏剧、音乐、舞蹈的搜集整理工作也卓有成效。20余部藏族民间文化作品和著述已经出版。《格萨尔王传》是藏族人民创作的世界上最长的英雄史诗，一直作为口头说唱艺术流传在藏族民间。对这部史诗的抢救、整理和研究工作被列为国家社会科学重点研究项目，并成立了专门机构。现已录制了3000多盘磁带，整理出版藏文版62部，发行300多万册。60余万字的《中国戏曲志·西藏卷》已经编竣，填补了西藏历史上戏剧理论著述和专题志书的空白。关于民族舞蹈、民间歌谣、藏戏音乐、曲艺音乐、器乐、曲艺、民歌、民间故事、谚语的集成志书，也在全面普查收集资料和整理编纂之中。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Marked achievements have also been made in the collection and collation of Tibetan folk literature, drama, music and choreography. More than 20 writings and books on Tibetan folk culture have been published. King Gesar, the world's longest epic created by the Tibetan people, existed only in oral memory among the Tibetan people and was performed using dialogue and singing. Today, the retrieval, collation and study of this epic has been included in the state's key social science research projects, and a special institution has been founded to take charge of the project. Up to now, more than 3,000 cassette tapes recording the epic have been made, and 62 volumes in the Tibetan language published with a total circulation exceeding 3 million copies. The 600,000-word History of Chinese Dramas: Tibetan Volume has been compiled, filling in a blank in theoretical writings and monographic studies on drama in Tibetan history. Materials are being garnered on the basis of surveys for the compilation of books about Tibetan dance, folk rhymes, music in Tibetan opera and folk art, instrumental music, folk art history, folk songs, folklore and proverbs.

　　藏学是研究藏族历史、宗教、文化、经济、政治、社会等各个领域的综合性学科。在西藏和其他一些地方现已建立了藏学研究机构50多个，并于1986年在北京成立了中国藏学研究中心。这些研究机构承担了大量研究课题，如西藏经济社会发展战略、简明西藏通史、梵文贝叶经的整理研究和西藏宗教源流与教派研究等项目；创办了《西藏研究》、《西藏佛教》、《西藏社会发展研究》、《西藏艺术研究》、《雪域文化》、《中国藏学》、《中国西藏》等近30种藏、汉、英文刊物。八十年代以来，随着西藏国际学术交流活动的逐渐开展，已有十多个国家和地区的130余名学者和旅居国外的藏胞学者来参观访问，进行学术考察和洽谈科研合作项目。一些藏族专家学者也应邀出国访问、讲学和参加学术会议。

Tibetology is a comprehensive branch of learning which embraces all areas, including Tibetan history, religion, culture, economics, politics and sociology. More than 50 Tibetan studies institutions have been founded in Tibet and other places, and the China Tibetan Studies Center was inaugurated in 1986 in Beijing. These research institutions have taken up numerous research projects, such as the strategy for socio-economic development in Tibet, a concise history of Tibet, the collation and study of Pattra in Sanskrit, and the study of the origin of Tibetan religions and religious sects. They have also launched nearly 30 journals in the Tibetan, Chinese or English languages, including Tibet Research, Tibetan Buddhism, Tibetan Social Development Study, Tibetan Art Study, Snowy Land Culture, China's Tibetan Studies, and China's Tibet. Since the 1980s, with the expansion of international academic exchange concerning the study of Tibet, 130-plus scholars from a dozen of countries and regions and Tibetan scholars residing abroad have visited Tibet, made academic surveys and conducted negotiations on joint scientific research projects. Some Tibetan experts and scholars were invited to go on tours, give lectures and participate in academic meetings abroad.

　　今天，西藏的传统文化艺术已由过去只供达官贵人们消遣转为面向广大人民群众，西藏人民的文化生活日益丰富。自治区现有专业歌舞、藏戏等艺术表演团体10个，县级文艺团体20个，业余演出队350多个；具备现代化设施的多功能群众艺术馆6座，县级文化馆25座。西藏现有一支近5000人的专业文化工作者队伍，其中藏族占90%。他们创作了一批具有浓郁民族风格和强烈时代气息的文艺作品和节目，有些作品还在国际上获奖。十余年来，西藏应邀出国演出的艺术团体有14个，表演艺术家近300人。在藏族各个传统节日期间，文化活动十分活跃，其中雪顿节已从传统的藏戏演出发展成为西藏一年一度最大的、包括各种文化艺术活动的综合性民族艺术节。西藏的民族传统体育活动也得到广泛开展。八十年代以来，收集、发掘并组织正规比赛的民族传统体育项目有10多个，在全国民族运动会上多次获奖。在传统节日里，西藏各地都举行传统体育项目的比赛和表演。西藏的现代竞技体育活动水平也不断提高，尤其是登山运动取得了举世瞩目的成绩。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Tibet's traditional culture and art, which only entertained high officials and noble lords in the past, now serve all Tibetan people, enriching their cultural life. The autonomous region has ten professional art and dance ensembles and Tibetan opera troupes, 20 county-level art troupes and more than 350 amateur performing troupes. There are six multi-purpose people's art centers equipped with modern facilities and 25 county-level cultural centers. Tibet now boasts a contingent of nearly 5,000 professional cultural workers, with Tibetans accounting for 90 percent of the total. They have created a number of literary and artistic works and programs which have a strong national flavor and reflect the features of our age, and some of their works have won international prizes. Over the past decade and more, 14 Tibetan art troupes composed of close to 300 artists were invited to give performances abroad. Cultural activities are very much in evidence during each traditional festival in Tibet. The Sour Milk Drinking Festival has expanded from performances of Tibetan operas to the largest annual art festival featuring all kinds of cultural and artistic activities. Traditional sports have been held extensively in Tibet too. Since the 1980s, more than ten traditional sports have been tapped and included in formal competitions. Tibetan athletes captured quite a few prizes at the National Sports Meet for Ethnic Groups. During traditional festivals, time-honored games and performances are held in all parts of Tibet. The modern athletic level in Tibet has been enhanced constantly and mountaineering, in particular, has attained internationally known achievements.

　　在传统文化活动活跃开展的同时，现代文化设施也进入了西藏。目前全自治区有电视台、电视录像转播台和电视差转台共计137座，卫星地面接收站297座，广播电台、转播台、发射台共26座，各地县有线广播站74个，初步形成覆盖全区的卫星传输、无线电传输和有线广播传输相结合的广播电视网。西藏现有电影发行放映机构82个，放映队553个，年发行新片近200部，农牧区免费放映电影。许多现代娱乐设施也已在西藏出现，传统文化活动与现代文化活动并存共荣。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

While traditional cultural activities are flourishing in Tibet, modern cultural facilities have also made their way there. At present, Tibet has 137 television and TV video relay stations and television transposer stations, 297 ground satellite stations, 26 radio broadcasting, relay and transmitting stations, and 74 wire broadcasting stations at prefectural and county levels. A broadcasting and television network which covers the whole region and combines satellite and wireless transmission with wire broadcasting has initially taken shape in Tibet. The region now has 82 film distribution and projection agencies and 553 film projection teams. Nearly 200 new films are shown each year, and residents in agricultural and pastoral areas enjoy free film shows. Many modern recreational facilities have been built in Tibet to prosper both traditional and modern cultural activities.

十、人民健康和人口发展状况

X. People's Health and Demographic Growth

　　封建农奴制度下的旧西藏，只有三所医疗设备极其简陋、规模有限的官办藏医机构和少量私人诊所，从业人员近百人，加上民间藏医也只有400余人，平均每千人口只有不到0.4名医务人员。这些藏医机构和人员主要为贵族、官员服务，广大农奴和奴隶有病得不到治疗。天花、鼠疫等烈性传染病屡有发生和流行。据记载，西藏和平解放前的150年间，天花大流行过四次，其中1925年的一次，仅拉萨地区就有7000人丧生。1934年和1937年的两次伤寒流行，拉萨又有5000余人死亡。当某些传染病暴发时，原西藏地方政府不但不采取措施救治病人，反而把病人赶进深山峡谷，派兵把守山口，将病人困死。根据历史资料记载，旧西藏人均寿命只有36岁，人口增长长期处于停滞状态。

Old Tibet, under the feudal serf system, had only three officially operated, small traditional Tibetan medical establishments, having simple and rough medical equipment, and a few private clinics. There were close to 100 practitioners. Even adding folk doctors of Tibetan medicine, the number totalled only about 400, averaging less than 0.4 per 1,000 people. These medical establishments and medical workers chiefly served the nobility and officials. Absolutely no medical treatment was given to the broad masses of serfs and slaves when they fell ill. Deadly infectious diseases such as smallpox and the plague occurred frequently and even ran rampant. According to records, in the 150 years before the peaceful liberation of Tibet in 1951, smallpox raged four times, and the contagion in 1925 caused 7,000 deaths in the Lhasa area alone. Epidemic typhoid fever in 1934 and 1937 took more than 5,000 lives in Lhasa. When some infectious diseases spun out of control, the former Tibetan local government did not take measures to save the afflicted but, on the contrary, drove them into high mountains or deep valleys, whose exits were guarded by troops. This resulted in the death of the expelled sufferers. Historical records show that in old Tibet, the average life span was 36 years, and the growth of the Tibetan population stagnated for a long time.

　　控制对西藏人民生命健康危害最烈的传染病，是西藏发展医疗卫生事业的首要任务。中国政府认真贯彻“预防为主”的方针，从六十年代初起，西藏再未发现过天花病例，各种传染病、地方病发病率大幅度下降，部分严重威胁人民健康的疾病已经消灭或基本控制。为了保护藏族儿童的健康成长，1986年以来，西藏广泛开展计划免疫，免疫接种率达85%以上。

The primary task facing Tibet in the development of public health care has been to gain control over the most deadly infectious diseases. The Chinese government conscientiously carries out the principle of "taking prevention as the main task," with the result that no case of smallpox has been reported in Tibet since the early 1960s. The incidence of various infectious and endemic diseases has gone down by a substantial margin, and some serious diseases that threaten the lives of people have been wiped out or brought under basic control. In order to assure the healthy growth of Tibetan children, a planned immunization program has been widely implemented in Tibet since 1986. Over 85 percent of children have been inoculated.

　　民主改革后，自治区逐步建立了遍布城乡的医疗卫生网。1991年全区卫生机构已有1197个，比1951年增加400倍；医院床位由1951年的零增加到5077张；专业卫生人员9740人，比1951年增加97倍，其中卫生技术人员7749人，藏族约占卫生技术人员总数的80%。西藏88%的人口在农牧区，1991年，西藏农牧区有卫生机构850个，医院床位2300张，专业卫生人员3700人。此外，还有3500名乡村医生和卫生员直接服务于农牧民群众。在西藏，平均每千人口拥有病床2.3张，医生2.1人，分别相当和高于全国平均数，也高于中等收入国家平均数。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

After the Democratic Reform in 1959, the autonomous region gradually established a medical and health network throughout Tibet. In 1991, the region boasted 1,197 medical establishments, 401 times as many as in 1951. There were no hospital beds in 1951 but 5,077 in 1991. Professional medical workers numbered 9,740, or 98 times higher than in 1951. Among them 7,749 were health technicians, with Tibetans accounting for 80 percent of the total. Now, 88 percent of Tibetans are living in rural and pastoral areas, where there were 850 health establishments containing a total of 2,300 beds and 3,700 medical workers in 1991. A further 3,500 local rural doctors and health workers directly serve the masses of farmers and herdsmen. In Tibet, on average, there are 2.3 beds and 2.1 doctors per 1,000 people, figures equal to and above the national average respectively, and also higher than that of middle-income countries.

　　西藏的传统医学藏医、藏药得到继承和发展。政府投资2000万元新建了自治区藏医院住院部和五个地区藏医院。1991年，全区有藏医药人员1015名。为了适应藏医事业发展的需要，建立了藏医学院和藏医研究所，鼓励和支持著名老藏医著书立说，及时整理了一批年事已高的藏医药专家的宝贵经验。出版发行了藏医名著《四部医典》，编写出版了《四部医典系列挂图全集》、《医学百科全书－藏医分卷》、藏医《生理学》、《病理学》、《药理学》、《饮食学》、《新编藏医学》等数十种藏医教材或专著。藏药的生产也有了迅速发展，现已建立了三座藏药厂。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Traditional Tibetan medical science, comprising Tibetan medicine and pharmacology, has been handed down and developed. The government invested 20 million yuan in building a new inpatient department of the region's Hospital of Traditional Tibetan Medicine, as well as five local hospitals of this kind. In 1991, there were 1,015 Tibetan medicine doctors and pharmacists in the whole region. In order to meet the needs for the development of Tibetan medicine, the autonomous region founded the Tibetan Medical College and the Tibetan Medicine Research Institute, and encouraged and supported famous veteran Tibetan medicine doctors to write scholarly books. A chronology of valuable medical expertise was compiled by a group of aged specialists. The Four-Volume Medical Code, a famous book on Tibetan medical knowledge, was published and distributed. Efforts have also been made in the compiling and publishing of A Complete Collection of Wall Charts of the Four-Volume Medical Code and Medical Science Encyclopedia: Tibetan Medicine, plus dozens of teaching materials and special books about Tibetan medicine, including Physiology, Pathology, Pharmacology, Dietetics, and Newly Compiled Tibetan Medicine. Pharmaceuticals production is developing quickly too. Now, there are three Tibetan medicine factories.

　　西藏医学科研机构对危害西藏人民健康的高原病等疾病进行重点研究，取得了重要成果。西藏医疗工作者在高原肺水肿、高山昏迷和慢性高原病的抢救和治疗方面，一直处于国内外领先地位。

Scientific research institutes of Tibetan medicine have put more efforts into the study of plateau sickness and other diseases which endanger the lives of Tibetan people, and have achieved important research results. Tibetan medical workers are both domestic and international leaders in rescue and the treatment of plateau pneumochysis, mountain coma and chronic plateau sickness.

　　为了适应卫生人才培养的需要，在西藏民族学院设立了医疗系，建立了西藏自治区卫生学校和日喀则、昌都卫生学校。这些学校共培养了6000多名高中级卫生人员。1980年以来，西藏自治区卫生系统对在职卫生人员进行了5000余人次的培训，提高了他们的专业技术水平和管理水平。

To train more health workers, the Tibet Institute for Nationalities has opened a medical department. In addition, the Health School for the Tibet Autonomous Region has been established and another two in Xigaze and Qamdo. These schools have trained more than 6,000 high- and middle-ranking health workers. Since 1980, more than 5,000 health workers in the region have received on-the-job training, which has helped raise their professional and administrative levels.

　　政府对藏族人民实行人人免费医疗，加之医疗卫生条件大大改善，西藏人民的寿命和健康水平有了很大提高。平均期望寿命已由解放前的36岁提高到目前的65岁。1985年与1965年相比，拉萨地区藏族青少年平均身高增加8.8厘米，平均体重增加5.2公斤。

The government provides free medical care for all Tibetans. This, plus considerable improvements in medical and health conditions, has greatly raised the average life span and health level of the Tibetan people. Average life expectancy has risen from 36 years before liberation to 65 years at present. When compared with 1965, the average height and weight of young Tibetans in the Lhasa area increased by 8.8 cm and 5.2 kg respectively.

　　政府对藏族的计划生育采取特殊的政策，对占全区总人口88%的农牧民未实行计划生育，只是向他们宣传合理生育、优生优育。西藏虽然地域辽阔，但能够利用的土地资源很少，1991年人均占有耕地仅1.54亩，而人口增长很快，有必要控制人口的增长。1984年以来，自治区政府在全区藏族干部、职工和城镇居民中提倡和实行一对夫妇生育两个孩子。对汉族干部、职工则提倡和实行一对夫妇只生一个孩子。实行计划生育的人口仅约占西藏总人口的12%。在实行计划生育中，始终坚持“宣传为主、自愿为主、服务为主”的原则，制止任何形式的强制性堕胎。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The government has special policies on birth control in Tibet. Family planning is not practiced for the farmers and herds people who constitute 88 percent of the region's entire population. The government only conducts publicity campaigns to inform them about rational births and ways to have healthy babies. Tibet has a vast expanse of territory, but few land resources which can be developed. In 1991, the average amount of cultivated land per person was only 1.54 mu. As Tibet's population has been increasing at a fast rate, population control is necessary. Since 1984, the regional government has advocated and carried out the policy of two children per couple among Tibetan cadres, workers and the staff of enterprises and residents in cities and towns. However, among the Han cadres, workers and staff members in Tibet, the policy of one child per couple has been advocated and enforced. Only 12 percent of the people in Tibet are covered by the family planning policy. In the process of carrying out family planning, the government always persists in the principle of "mainly publicity, volunteering, and service," and prohibits any form of forced abortion.

　　四十年来，西藏人口迅速增长。1950年至1990年，西藏人口净增119.6万人，其中藏族人口由100万增加到200多万，增长一倍多。1951年西藏和平解放时，西藏地方政府没有准确的人口统计。1953年，中国进行第一次全国人口普查，当时由达赖喇嘛为首的西藏地方政府申报西藏人口为100万。1964年第二次全国人口普查，西藏人口为125.1万，其中藏族人口120.9万，占人口总数的96.63%。1982年第三次全国人口普查，西藏人口为189.2万，其中藏族人口178.6万，占人口总数的94.4%。1990年第四次全国人口普查，西藏人口为219.6万，其中藏族人口209.6万，占人口总数的95.46%。汉族和其他民族人口始终占5%左右。1970年以来，西藏的人口出生率、自然增长率均高于全国平均水平。1982年至1990年，西藏藏族人口增长30.98万，自然增长率为17.34‰，高于同期全国平均人口自然增长率2.64个千分点。如果不是废除封建农奴制，经济得到发展，人民生活和医疗卫生条件得到很大改善，西藏地区的人口出生率和自然增长率不可能在这样短的时间里达到较高水平。

Over the past 40 years, the population of Tibet has rapidly mounted. Between 1950 and 1990, there was a net increase of 1.196 million people in Tibet, with the number of Tibetans climbing to more than 2 million, more than double the figure of 1 million in 1950. In 1951, when Tibet was peacefully liberated, there were no accurate population statistics provided by Tibetan local government. When China conducted the first national census in 1953, the Tibetan local government headed by the Dalai Lama reported that there were 1 million people in Tibet. The second national census in 1964 showed that the population in Tibet was 1.251 million, of which 1.209 million were Tibetans, making up 96.63 percent of the total. The third national census in 1982 said there were 1.892 million people in Tibet, of whom 1.786 million were Tibetans, accounting for 94.4 percent. The fourth national census in 1990 showed that there were 2.196 million people in Tibet, of whom 2.096 million, or 95.46 percent, were Tibetans. People of the Han and other non-Tibetan nationalities have always made up around 5 percent of the total population in Tibet. Since 1970, the birth rate and natural population growth have both been above the average national level. Between 1982 and 1990, there was an increase of 309,800 ethnic Tibetans in Tibet, and the rate of natural population increase was 17.34 per thousand, 2.64 perthousand points higher than that of the national level in the same period. For Tibet, it is impossible to reach such relatively high levels in terms of birth rates and the natural growth rates of population in so short a period of time without the abolition of the feudal serf system, and economic growth plus the obvious improvement of people's living standards and medical and health conditions.

　　在西藏的人口问题上，达赖集团散布了许多谎言。最耸人听闻的谣言之一是说西藏和平解放后被杀了120万人。以达赖为首的西藏地方政府在1953年提供的西藏人口数字不过100万人，果真以后杀了120万人，那么西藏的人早就完全被杀光了，更不可能发展为200多万人。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

On the question of the size of the Tibetan population, the Dalai clique has spread many rumors. The most sensational was that more than 1.2 million people were killed after the peaceful liberation of Tibet. In 1953, the Tibetan local government under the Dalai Lama reported the population stood at 1 million people. If 1.2 million inhabitants had been massacred, it would have been a case of genocide and certainly the population in Tibet could not have increased to the present 2 million.

　　达赖集团又说，西藏不只是现在的范围，还包括四川、青海等藏族聚居的地方，共有600多万人。所谓大西藏不过是帝国主义企图瓜分中国而策划的阴谋。经过漫长的历史变迁，藏族除聚居于西藏之外，还分别聚居在四川、青海、甘肃、云南等省的一些地区。但这些地区过去就不属西藏行政区划范围，原西藏地方政府也未曾管辖过西藏以外的其他藏族聚居区。十三世纪始，元朝、明朝中央政府即对西藏和其他各藏族聚居地区分别管辖。清朝中央政权更进一步明确了各藏区的行政区划。民国时期，西藏以外的藏族聚居区仍分别由原属省管辖。中华人民共和国成立以后，基本上维持原来的行政区划，在四川、青海、甘肃、云南四省的藏族聚居区建立了十个藏族自治州、两个藏族自治县。包括西藏和各省藏族聚居区的藏族人口，总共也没有600万人。在1953年全国普查人口时，全国包括西藏在内的藏族人口是277万，1990年人口普查时，全国藏族人口为459万。和西藏一样，其他地方的藏族人口也有了大幅度的增加。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The Dalai Lama clique has also contended that geographically Tibet extends far beyond the boundaries of today, including areas inhabited by the Tibetans in Sichuan, Qinghai and other places, making a total population of 6 million. This so-called Tibet Major is merely a conspiracy hatched by imperialists in an attempt to carve up China. As a result of long historical changes, ethnic Tibetans have settled not only in Tibet but also in areas in Sichuan, Qinghai, Gansu and Yunnan provinces. But these areas were not under the jurisdiction of Tibet in the past, and the former Tibetan local government never administered any Tibetan-inhabited areas beyond Tibet. From the 13th century on, the central governments of the Yuan and Ming dynasties placed Tibet and other areas with Tibetan populations under separate administrations. The Qing Dynasty further defined administrative divisions in Tibetan-inhabited areas. During the period of the Republic of China, Tibetan-inhabited areas beyond Tibet remained under the jurisdiction of the provinces where they were located. These administrative divisions basically remained after the founding of the People's Republic of China. In the Tibetan-inhabited areas of the four provinces of Sichuan, Qinghai, Gansu and Yunnan, ten Tibetan autonomous prefectures and two Tibetan autonomous counties were set up. The Tibetan population, including Tibetans in Tibet and Tibetan-inhabited areas of other provinces, fell short of 6 million. When China conducted the first national census in 1953, the overall Tibetan population, including those residing in Tibet, totalled 2.77 million. The 1990 national census gave a count of 4.59 million people. As in Tibet, the numbers of Tibetans in other areas had grown considerably over the period between the two censuses.

　　还有一个对不了解实际情况的人有极大蛊惑性的谎言是说汉人大量移民，使西藏的藏族成为少数民族。西藏的自然条件极为严酷，低氧严寒，大部分为高山、荒漠、永久性冰雪地带。生活习惯更与内地不同，内地人极难适应。西藏不是过去美国的西部，可以大批移民开发。历次全国人口普查的统计数字，已彻底戳穿了这种在西藏汉族人口超过藏族的谎言。

Another lie is the claim that a large number of Hans have migrated to Tibet, turning the ethnic Tibetans into a minority. It is very easy to confuse and poison the minds of people who are not aware of the truth. In Tibet, the natural conditions are harsh, the air is oxygen-poor and the climate is bitterly cold. Most of the land consists of mountains, wilderness, and permafrost and snow zones. Customs there are so different from those in the heartland of the country that people from the interior can hardly adapt to them. Tibet is not like the western part of the United States, where large numbers of people moved in for development. The figures from various national censuses have thoroughly exploded the lie that the Han population in Tibet has already surpassed that of the Tibetans.

十一、生存环境的保护

XI. Protection of Living Environment

　　在大力发展西藏经济建设的同时，人民政府非常重视西藏的环境保护。西藏自治区认真贯彻了保护环境的国家基本政策，坚持经济建设、城乡建设和环境建设同步规划、同步实施、同步发展的战略方针；实行预防为主、谁污染谁治理和强化环境管理三项政策。西藏自治区人大常委会和人民政府根据西藏的实际，陆续颁布了一系列保护环境和自然资源的地方法规和行政规章，如《西藏自治区森林保护条例》、《西藏自治区草原管理暂行规定》、《西藏自治区人民政府关于保护水产资源的布告》等等，仅野生动物保护方面的规章就有20余件。1975年，自治区设立了环境保护机构，加强了对全区环境保护工作的统一监督管理。1990年，西藏自治区环境保护委员会成立，统一领导全区的环境保护工作。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

While vigorously developing Tibetan economy, the people's government attaches great importance to environmental protection in Tibet. Conscientiously carrying out the state's basic policy on environmental protection, the Tibet Autonomous Region perseveres in its strategy of synchronized planning and undertaking of economic, urban, rural and environmental construction. It has implemented the three policies of making preventive measures a priority, assigning responsibility to those who created pollution to clearing it up and intensifying environmental control. The Standing Committee of the People's Congress of the Tibet Autonomous Region and the people's government of the autonomous region have published a series of local laws and regulations, as well as administrative rules and systems, covering the protection of environment and natural resources in line with actual local conditions. Examples are the Regulations for the Protection of Forests in the Tibet Autonomous Region, the Provisional Regulations of the Tibet Autonomous Region on Administration of Grasslands and the Notice of the People's Government of the Tibet Autonomous Region on the Protection of Aquatic Resources. In the field of wildlife protection alone, there are more than 20 documents on related regulations and systems. In 1975, the autonomous region set up an environmental protection institution to beef up unified supervision and administration over environmental protection work. In 1990, the Environmental Protection Committee of the Tibet Autonomous Region was established to take charge of such undertakings in the whole region.

　　西藏自治区开展的生态环境建设，取得了很大的成绩。全区已建成大小灌溉水渠1.3万多条，水库、塘坝5200余座，总库容2.7亿多立方米；河道堤防工程18处，堤防总长约250公里。多年来，坚持合理使用化肥和农药，对草场采取围栏养贮、引水灌溉和保护管理措施；开发河滩，种树种草；实行分季轮牧，禁止盲目开荒破坏草场。到1990年底，全区草场围栏面积达18.3万公顷，草场灌溉面积16.1万公顷，灭鼠、灭虫、灭毒草面积118.7万公顷。全区生态环境不断得到改善。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The region has also made considerable headway in improving ecological environment. It has seen the building of over 13,000 major and minor irrigation channels, some 5,200 large and small reservoirs able to hold more than 270 million cubic meters of water, and 18 river embarkment projects, with a total length of about 250 km. For many years, chemical fertilizers and pesticides have been employed on a sound basis. Many measures have been taken to protect grasslands, such as enclosure with fences for livestock breeding and irrigation. Efforts have also been made to develop river banks and plant trees and grass. A rational system of rotation of herds has been enforced, and efforts have been made to prevent the blind reclamation of wasteland at the expense of grassland. By the end of 1990, the total area of fenced grassland had reached 183,000 hectares, while 161,000 hectares were under irrigation. Rats, pests and virulent plants have been kept under control over 1.187 million hectares of grassland. The region's ecological environment has improved steadily.

　　与此同时，全区坚持开展植树造林，护林防火，封山育林，制止乱砍滥伐。六十年代初至今，全区植树7000多万株，每年封山育林约14万公顷。西藏现有森林面积632万公顷，其中人工林面积2.2万公顷，森林面积每年都在增加，林木生长量大于消耗量。全区已建成7个自然保护区，正在建设和规划中的5个，总面积32.53万平方公里，约占全区面积的26.5%，使一批珍稀野生动植物得到有效保护。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Work has simultaneously proceeded on tree planting, the safeguarding of forests and the prevention of forest fires. Hillsides have been closed off for forest conservation and the destructive lumbering of forests banned. From the early 1960s to the present, the region has planted 70 million trees and hillsides closed off for forest conservation reached 140,000 hectares a year. Tibet now has 6.32 million hectares of forests, of which 22,000 hectares have been planted by people in the region. Forested areas have been expanding every year, with the increase in standing timber greater than that of felled lumber. The region has set up seven nature reserves, while another five are under construction or in the planning stage. Reserves are to reach 325,300 square km, accounting for 26.5 percent of the region's total area, effectively protecting rare wildlife and plants.

　　西藏坚持因地制宜，积极发展水电站建设，推广利用地热能、太阳能及风能。解放以来，全区已建成水电站424座，装机容量10.97万千瓦，地热电站2座，推广太阳能灶17750台，建太阳房10.5万平方米，推广太阳能热水器1.9万平方米，引进风力发电机700多台。使用这些无污染能源对保护环境起到了重要作用。

In accordance with local conditions, Tibet has steadfastly pressed ahead with construction of hydropower stations and worked hard to exploit geothermal energy resources and popularize the use of solar and wind energy. The region has since liberation built 424 hydropower stations with a total installed generating capacity of 109,700 kw, and two geothermal power stations. The use of solar energy stoves has been introduced throughout the region, with the figure reaching 17,750. Over 105,000 square meters of solar energy housing have been built and 19,000 square meters of solar energy heating devices have been installed. In addition, the region has introduced some 700 wind-driven generators. The use of these pollution-free energy resources plays an important role in the protection of the environment.

　　在进行生态环境建设的同时，西藏加强了环境管理。对一切影响环境的建设项目，坚持实行“环境影响评价”制度和治理污染设施与主体工程同时设计、同时施工、同时投产制度。对原有的一些污染源进行了治理。全区工业废气处理率已达80%。同时，还完成了西藏工业污染源调查、西藏土壤环境背景值调查研究、西藏环境天然放射性水平调查研究、西藏野生植物资源调查、西藏野生动物资源调查等项工作，为保护西藏的环境，合理利用资源，发展西藏经济提供了科学依据。在城乡建设中，坚持合理规划和布局，搞好配套建设，区内城市基础设施有所增强，拉萨市人均绿地达到12平方米，绿地覆盖率17.6%。为了及时掌握全区环境质量状况，自治区在拉萨建立了环境监测站，日喀则、昌都地区的环境监测站也正在建设中。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

While bolstering the ecological environment, Tibet is strengthening environmental administration. For all construction projects that might affect the environment, the region follows the "environmental impact appraisal" system and the system of designing, building and putting into operation pollution treatment facilities and construction projects at the same time. Some sources of pollution have been curbed. Industrial waste gas disposal has reached 80 percent. Meanwhile, efforts have been made to investigate the origins of industrial pollution in Tibet, investigate and study the background value of soil environment, investigate and study the natural radioactive level in the environment, and investigate wild plant and animal resources. These provide a scientific basis for environmental protection, rational use of natural resources and economic development in Tibet. In the field of urban and rural construction, the region has coupled rational planning and distribution with construction of basic supportive projects. Urban infrastructure facilities have increased in the region. In Lhasa, green areas make up 17.6 percent of the city's total area, with an average per-person share of 12 square meters. In order to have timely information on the quality of the region's environment, the Tibet Autonomous Region has established the Environmental Monitoring Station in Lhasa. Two more are under construction in Xigaze and Qamdo.

　　根据监测，目前西藏的环境状况保持良好状态。大气、水环境基本没有受到污染。全区没有出现酸雨，城市大气中总悬浮微粒年日均值为340微克/立方米，大大好于国家大气环境质量的要求。水体除个别河段轻度污染外，全区江河湖泊水质良好。环境辐射在正常范围之内，不存在任何人为造成的放射性污染。达赖集团到处散布中国在西藏存贮核废料，这完全是无中生有。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

According to the monitoring station, environmental conditions are good in Tibet. Generally speaking, there is no pollution of the atmosphere or water. No acid rain has fallen in the region. The annual level of suspended particulate matter in the urban atmosphere averages 340 microgram/cubic meter a day, well within state standards. Apart from slight pollution in several sections of rivers, the water quality of the region's rivers and lakes is good. Radioactive elements are at the normal background level, causing no deleterious pollution. The Dalai Lama clique's accusations that China has stored its nuclear wastes in Tibet are therefore purely fiction.

　　当然，西藏的生态环境也有不尽如人意的地方，如草场质量趋于下降；有些珍稀动物分布范围在逐渐缩小。对此，西藏自治区人民政府强化了管理和宣传教育，对破坏环境保护的违法行为严厉制裁，使近些年来一些濒危动物如黑颈鹤、羚羊、虎等又得到了繁殖发展。

Of course, some undesirable environmental problems do sometimes arise. For example, the quality of grassland tends to deteriorate, and the habitat of some rare animals is gradually shrinking. The people's government of the Tibet Autonomous Region has taken counter-measures by strengthening administration, publicity and education. Serious penalties are meted out to those who violate the laws and regulations on environmental protection. As a result, the numbers of some animals on the verge of extinction, such as black-necked cranes, takins and tigers, have increased in recent years.

十二、国家对西藏发展的特殊支持

XII. Special State Aid for Tibet's Development

　　西藏素有“世界屋脊”之称，自然条件十分严酷。全区平均海拔高度在4000米以上，空气稀薄，低温缺氧，气压和含氧量都不及平原地区的三分之二，气温在10摄氏度以上的时间还不及中国最北部的黑龙江省的一半，可耕地仅占总面积的0.2%至0.3%。高原气候和地理环境极大地制约着经济的发展。为改变西藏的落后面貌，促进各民族共同繁荣，中央政府和全国人民对西藏倾注了巨大的关心，在人力、物力、财力、技术和政策等方面给予了大力支持和特殊照顾。

Known as the "Roof of the World," Tibet has quite harsh natural conditions. The region is more than 4,000 metres above sea level on the average. The air there is thin, cold and oxygen deficient and its barometric pressure and oxygen content are less than two-thirds of those at lower altitude plains. The duration of time with a temperature of above ten degrees Centigrade is less than half that in Heilongjiang Province in northernmost China. Only 0.2-0.3 percent of it is arable. Local economic development is slowed down by the plateau climate and geographic conditions. To change this backward situation and promote the common prosperity of all ethnic groups, the central government and the people of the whole country have offered great support to Tibet in terms of labor, materials, finances and technology as well as in policies, demonstrating their special concern.

　　四十年来，国家给西藏的财政补贴累计达157亿元，用于西藏重点建设项目的基建投资42.7亿元，两项合计近200亿元。除中央财政补贴和基本建设投资外，国务院各部委还根据西藏各项事业发展的需要，给予多种专项补助。仅1979年至1986年，此类补助即达59亿元。最近几年，国家对西藏的投入大幅度增长，1991年各项资金投入达到17亿元。目前，国家每年给西藏的财政补贴为10亿元，按人均计算，在全国各省、自治区、直辖市中是最高的。国家的大量投资，使西藏农牧业、能源、交通、邮电通信等基础产业和基础设施以及教育文化事业得以初步改变落后状况，为西藏经济、文化的较快发展奠定了物质基础。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

Over the last four decades, state financial subsidies to the region reached 15.7 billion yuan and investment in key capital construction projects stood at 4.27 billion yuan, for a total investment of close to 20 billion yuan. Apart from state financial subsidies and capital construction investment, the region has received a multitude of special subsidies granted by ministries and commissions under the State Council in accordance with Tibet's need to develop various undertakings. Such special subsidies amounted to 5.9 billion yuan in the period of 1979-86. State financial input in the region has increased by a substantial margin in the last few years and reached 1.7 billion yuan in 1991. At present, the state financial subsidies to the region average 1 billion yuan a year, the nation's top per-capita figure. State investment has brought initial changes to the backward situations in agriculture, livestock breeding, energy, communications, post and telecommunications and other basic industries and infrastructures as well as education and culture, laying a sound material foundation for rapid economic and cultural development in Tibet.

　　为满足西藏人民生产、生活资料的需求，国家在运输距离长、运输条件十分困难的情况下，每年调集大批物资进藏。1959年到1991年，从内地共调进粮食138.8万吨，石油成品油281.5万吨和价值45.8亿元的各类工业品，各类进藏物资总重量达1000多万吨。

To meet the Tibetan people's needs for production and subsistence, the central government sends large quantities of materials there every year, despite the long distance and poor transport conditions. From 1959 to 1991, a total of 1.388 million tons of grain, 2.815 million tons of refined oil and 4.58 billion yuan worth of manufactured goods, weighing over 10 million tons in total, were hauled in from the hinterland.

　　中央和内地各省市大力支援西藏的经济、文化建设，修建了穿越海拔五六千米高山的川藏、青藏等公路干线、格尔木至拉萨输油管道、羊八井地热电站等大中型基础设施。为了加速西藏的建设，1984年2月，中央组织内地九省市的人力、物力，用一年多时间，在西藏修建了包括能源、交通、建材、商业、文化、体育、教育、卫生、旅游、市政建设等43项工程，总建筑面积23.6万平方米，投资达4.8亿元，使用水泥、钢材和其他建筑物资总重量超过20万吨。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

To aid economic and cultural construction in Tibet, the central government and other provinces and municipalities have pooled efforts together to build the Sichuan-Tibet, Qinghai-Tibet and other trunk highways that cross mountains 5,000-6,000 metres above sea level, a finished oil transmission pipeline from Golmud to Lhasa, the Yangbajain Geothermal Power Station and other large and medium-sized infrastructure facilities. To speed up construction in the region, the central government in February 1984 organized manpower and materials from nine provinces and municipalities in the interior to aid 43 construction projects in Tibet, the task taking more than one year. These projects, involving energy, communications, building materials, trade, culture, sports, education, public health, tourism and municipal works, covered a construction area of 236,000 square metres, involved a total investment of 480 million yuan and consumed more than 200,000 tons of cement, rolled steel and other building materials.

　　为了解决西藏缺少科技人才问题，国家各有关部门和全国各省市对西藏各地区实行对口支援，动员大批专业技术人员，包括各类科技人员、工程技术人员、专业管理人员、教师和医务工作者，进藏参加建设。对重点工程建设，组织各方面的专家、学者和工程技术人员进藏进行调查研究、编制规划、勘察设计、指导施工。1973年到1991年，全国十多个省、市先后派出了总计3000多人的医疗队进藏，向藏族医务工作者传授医疗技术，深入工厂、农牧区为广大群众防治疾病。内地各医学院校还努力为西藏培训医务人员，有70%的藏族医务人员在内地进修学习过，技术业务水平显著提高。1974年到1988年，支援西藏的教师达2969人。许多省、市和院校为西藏各类学校培养、培训师资和管理人员。国家每年还统一分配一定数量的高等师范本科毕业生和研究生支援西藏教育。从1985年起，内地24个省、市开办西藏中学或西藏班，对在内地学习的藏族学生在学习、生活上给予特别的优待。据1991年统计，在内地西藏班、校学习的学生达9800人。

Tibet is in short supply of scientific and technical personnel. To solve this problem, relevant government departments and other provinces and municipalities have been asked to aid their counterparts in the region. Large numbers of technicians including scientists, engineers, managerial personnel, teachers and medical workers have been encouraged to take their skills to Tibet. For key construction projects, experts, scholars, engineers and technicians have been organized to conduct investigation and study, planning, prospecting, designing and construction. From 1973 to 1991, medical teams composed of more than 3,000 medical workers from a dozen provinces and municipalities were sent to the region to train Tibetan medical workers and prevent and cure diseases for factory workers, farmers and herdsmen. Medical colleges and schools in the hinterland have started training classes to improve the skills of Tibetan medical workers. Thus far, about 70 percent of the Tibetan medical workers have received such training. From 1974 to 1988, a total of 2,969 teachers were sent to Tibet to teach. Many colleges and universities in many provinces and municipalities have trained teachers and managerial personnel for various kinds of schools in the region. Each year a certain number of teachers' college graduates, including some post-graduates, are assigned teaching jobs in Tibet. Since 1985, Tibetan middle schools and Tibetan classes have been established in 24 interior provinces and municipalities to offer education to Tibetan students, who also enjoy special care in study and life. In 1991 some 9,800 Tibetan students were studying in these schools or classes in the hinterland.

　　所有由内地到西藏的人员，都要遇到高山反应、生活习惯很不适应等种种困难，但为了响应政府支援西藏人民的号召，他们不惜付出很大个人牺牲，自觉服从调动。政府也照顾实际情况，规定了定期轮换等办法。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

All those who go from the hinterland to Tibet experience many difficulties. They have to make a major effort to overcome mountain sickness and extremely different customs and habits in order to adjust to life in Tibet. By responding to the central government's call to aid the Tibetan people, they show they are willing to work in the region and do not hesitate to make personal sacrifices. They go there for a fixed period of time on rotation in accordance with the stipulation of the central government.

　　国家在西藏实行了一系列比内地优惠得多的经济政策和灵活措施，以增强西藏经济的内部活力，加快西藏的经济建设。1980年以来，西藏农牧区实行以家庭经营为主的多种经营方式，“土地归户使用，自主经营，长期不变”，“牲畜归户，私有私养、自主经营、长期不变”。农畜产品的销售以市场调节为主。对农牧民免征农牧业税。生产销售民族必需品的集体、个体工商企业免征工商税。农牧民个人和集体上市出售、交换农牧副和手工业产品，一律不收税。在对外开放方面，实行了比其他地区更为优惠的办法，外贸出口享受全部外汇留成，允许西藏在内地转销一般性进口商品。最近，西藏自治区政府还决定依照国家扩大开放的政策，建立对外经济技术开发区；增加边境开放口岸；允许对外商划地租赁；扩大与周边邻国的边民贸易和转口贸易。

The central government has introduced a series of more preferential economic policies and more flexible measures compared to those enjoyed by the interior provinces and municipalities in order to reinvigorate Tibet's economy and speed up economic construction there. Since 1980 agricultural and pastoral areas in Tibet have introduced diversified economic reforms focussing on household production. The policy is for farmers to cultivate land independently and for herdsmen to own the domestic animals they raise and conduct their own management, a policy which will remain unchanged for quite a long period of time. Farm and livestock products are sold mainly through the market. Farmers and herdsmen are exempt from agricultural and livestock taxes; collective and private industrial and commercial enterprises which produce and sell national necessities are exempt from industrial and commercial taxes. Farmers and herdsmen, individually or collectively, need pay no taxes for selling or exchanging their farm produce, livestock products or handicrafts. In opening up, the region implements a more preferential policy than other areas. It can retain all foreign exchange it earns from overseas trade and sell general imported products in the hinterland. Recently, the government of the Tibet Autonomous Region decided to set up foreign economic and technological development zones in accordance with the state policy on opening wider to the outside world; increase the number of open border ports; allow the foreign business people to lease land; and expand border trade with neighboring countries and entrepot trade.

　　从1991年开始，西藏进入了实施第八个五年计划和十年规划时期。为继续搞好经济文化建设，实现使大多数西藏人民的生活达到小康水平的目标，国家将继续对西藏给予大力扶持，已经确定了由国家投资在西藏建设的重大项目的发展规划，这些项目包括：

Tibet started to implement the Eighth Five-Year Plan and the Ten-Year Program in 1991. To further accelerate Tibet's economic and cultural construction and attain the target of a comfortable lifestyle for most Tibetans, the central government will continue to offer great support to Tibet. State-invested projects in Tibet have been established and written into a development program. The construction projects include the following:

　　——从1991年开始，投资10亿元，在雅鲁藏布江、拉萨河和年楚河中部流域河谷地带进行综合开发工程，把这一地区逐步建成西藏的商品粮基地、副食品基地，轻纺手工业和食品加工基地以及科技示范推广基地。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

-- A project started in 1991 with a total investment of 1 billion yuan for the comprehensive development of the drainage area of the middle reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo, Lhasa and Nyang Qu rivers. The project is designed to turn the area into bases for producing commodity grain, non-staple food, light industrial goods, textiles, handicrafts and processed food as well as for popularizing scientific and technological research achievements.

　　——投资8亿元，兴建被列为国家能源“八五”计划重点建设项目的羊卓雍湖抽水蓄能电站。1997年电站全部建成后，将从根本上缓解拉萨及周围地区电力供应紧张局面。

-- A project with an investment of 800 million yuan to build the Yamzhog Yumco Pump-Storage Power Station, one of the state's key energy construction projects during the Eighth Five-Year Plan (1991-95). Upon completion in 1997, the station will help ease the power shortage in Lhasa and the surrounding area.

　　——投资十几亿元对西藏的青藏、川藏、黑昌、中尼四条主要公路干线进行整治和改建，确保西藏经济命脉公路运输的畅通。四条公路的整治、改建工程已于1991年全面展开。

-- A project to rebuild the Qinghai-Tibet, Sichuan-Tibet, Nagqu-Qamdo and China-Nepal highways with an investment of over 1 billion yuan. The reconstruction of these four trunk highways designed to ensure smooth highway transportation began last year.

　　——扩建拉萨贡嘎机场，跑道已于1991年9月竣工，可起降波音747等大型客机。

-- The expansion of the Gonggar Airport in Lhasa. The runway which was completed in September 1991 can be used by Boeing 747s and other jumbo passenger aircraft.

　　——建设拉萨市邮政枢纽楼，新增程控自动电话1.1万门，建成47个县的54个卫星地面站及配套设施。

-- The construction of the Lhasa Post and Telecommunications Center, that entails the addition of 11,000-channel program-controlled telephone exchanges and 54 ground satellite stations in 47 counties, and other facilities.

　　西藏的现实充分说明，西藏人民摆脱封建农奴制后，获得了空前未有的广泛的人权。当然，由于西藏的经济、文化仍然比较落后，以及恶劣的自然地理环境的限制，西藏人民享有的人权还是不充分的，还需要不断作艰巨的努力，来改善人权的状况，这正是中国政府和人民在全力进行的。但是，无论从人权的哪个方面来说，现在的状况与封建农奴制的旧西藏相比，都已经有了天壤之别，达赖集团和国际反华势力打着“人权卫士”的旗号，对过去封建农奴主剥夺藏族人民一切人权的黑暗、野蛮、残酷丝毫不加谴责，却不顾谎言一再被揭穿，四处散布翻身作了国家主人的藏族人民丧失了人权。他们的目的无非是混淆视听，制造混乱，以达到梦寐以求的分裂中国、攫取西藏，进而颠覆社会主义中国的野心。所谓西藏的人权问题，实质在此。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

The realities in Tibet fully show that the Tibetan people, who have shaken off the yoke of feudal serfdom, now enjoy extensive human rights which they have never been able to enjoy before. But their human rights are not yet complete because of Tibet's backward economy and culture and its harsh geographic conditions. Continuous and sustained efforts should be made to improve the human rights situation. The Chinese government and people are trying their best to accomplish this. However, the human rights the Tibetan people enjoy today are poles apart from those under feudal serfdom. The Dalai clique and international anti-China forces, who flaunt the banner of "champions of human rights," do not denounce the dark, savage and cruel feudal serfdom at all, under which the Tibetan people were deprived of all human rights by the serf-owners. But they continue to tell lies even after lies they told previously have been exploded, alleging that the Tibetan people, who have become masters of the country, have lost their human rights. Their purpose is to mislead the public and create confusion in an attempt to realize their dream of dis-membering China, seizing Tibet and finally subverting socialist China. Here lies the essence of the issue of so-called human rights in Tibet.

　　任何分裂中国的图谋，都是不能得逞的。西藏人民和中国其他各族人民的紧密相联有着几千年悠久的历史，西藏地区和中国各省区统一为一个国家也已有七个世纪，在这么长的时期中，始终没有分裂，而是关系日益密切，这绝不是偶然的。根本原因在于，统一和分裂关系着藏族、汉族和国内其他民族的兴衰成败，合则共荣，分则两伤。西藏与中国其他部分始终结为一体，而不分裂，这是长时期历史所形成的必然结果。因此，企图把西藏从中国分裂出去，汉族和其他民族决不会答应，藏族人民也决不会答应。微博@高斋翻硕 公众号:高斋翻译学堂

No plot to split China will ever succeed. The close relations between the Tibetan people and other ethnic groups in China have lasted for several thousand years. And Tibet has been unified with other provinces and autonomous regions to make up a unitary country for seven centuries. In such a long period of time, Tibet's relations with other provinces and autonomous regions have become closer and closer, and there has never been separation. This is by no means fortuitous. The fundamental reason is that unity or separation has a decisive bearing on the prospering or decline of the Tibetan, the Han and all the other ethnic groups of China. Unity spells common prosperity, and separation would mean peril to both parties. The long-lasting unification of Tibet with other parts of China is the inevitable outcome of a long history. So the Han people and other ethnic groups absolutely will not accept separation of Tibet from China, nor will the Tibetan people themselves.